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SMITH'S  NEW  GRAMMAR 


ENGLISH   GMAMMAR 


PRODUCTIVE   SYSTEM: 


METHOD   OF   INSTRUCTION   RECENTLY  ADOPTED 


GERMANY  AND   SWITZERLAND 


IDcsfflitctJ  fiJ-  Srljools  anXi  ^catiemtes 


BY  ROSWELL  C.  SMITH, 

iUTHOR  OF    -''practical  AND    MENTAL  ARITHMETIC,"    "  "^TKLLECTUA  L 
AND  PRACTZCAL  GRAMMAR,"  AND  "INTRODUCTORY  ARITIiMKTIG" 


Scconti  HUftton. 


4  »  Prn  I.  AI)  E  1.  P  Hi  A  ; 

«  WILLIAM     MARSHALL     &     CO. 

Jforth-west  comer  i>/  Cutsnut  and  l-yth  StrtlU, 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1832,  by 

Perkins  &  Marvin, 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Massachusetts. 


PREFACE. 


Thr  following  work  was  composed,  as  is  indicated  by  the 
title,  on  what  is  styled  in  Germany  and  Switzerland  the 
"  Productive  System  of  Instruction."  [t  is  in  these  countries 
that  the  subject  of  Education  has  been  deemed  a  matter  of 
paramount  importance.  The  art  of  teaching,  particularly, 
has  there  been  most  ably  and  minutely  investigated.  To 
give  a  brief  account  of  the  different  systems  which  have 
prevailed  there,  may  not  be  irrelevant  on  the  present  occa- 
sion, as  they  assist  in  forming  an  opinion  of  the  comparative 
merits  of  the  "  Productive  System,"  on  which  this  work  is 
principally  based. 

"  In  reference  to  intellectual  education,  the  persona  who  were  in- 
strumental in  producinif  the  reformation  in  schools,  in  the  last  century, 
in  these  countries,  may  bo  divided  into  four  classes — the  Humanists, 
Philanthropists,  Pest.atozzian  and  the  Productive  Schools. 

"  At  the  restoration  of  learning,  iii  the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth 
centuries,  tlie  classics  were  brought  out  from  the  libraries  of  tha 
cloisters  in  which  they  had  been  buried.  As  they  presented  the 
only  examples  of  exalted  sentiments  and  elevated  style  which  the 
secular  literature  of  the  age  afforded,  thoy  were  regarded  as  the  only- 
means  of  acquiring  enlarged  views  and  a  liberal  education  ;  the 
study  of  them  recoi  ved  the  proud  title  of  Humanity  ;  and  the  zealous 
and  meritorious  mon  who  employed  this  means  for  the  revival  of 
learning,  were  subsequently  termed  Humanists. 

"  The  rigid  Humanists  maintained  tjiat  '  the  Greek  and  Latin 
authors  are  the  only  source  of  sound  learning,  wliether  in  philosophy 
or  rhetoric,  in  poetry  or  history,  in  medicine  or  law,  and  even  in  the 
elements  of  religion  ,  all  has  come  to  us  from  Greece  and  Rome.' 
'  The  learning  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages  is  the  only  founda- 
tion of  a  thorough  edvicatinn  ;'  the  knowledge  of  the  granin\r  ought 
to  precede  all  other  knowledge  ;  '  and  jihilologists  are  the  only  thor- 
oughly learned  men.' 

"  The  Humanists  maintained  the  entire  sway  of  the  learned  world 
until  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  when  the  school  of  the 
Philanthropists  arose.  Disgusted  with  the  extravagant  manner  in 
which  the  ancient  languages  were  extolled,  they  were  led  to  examine 
into  the  foundations  of  their  pretensions.  VVhile  they  yielded  the 
palm  to  the  ancients  in  all  that  relates  to  matters  of  taste  and  beauty, 
they  maintained  that  this  superiority  arose  from  the  fact,  that  the 
ancients  derived  their  views  directly  from  the  inspection  of  nature 
and  the  observation  of  man,  instead  of  occupying  themselves,  as  we 
do,  with  the  mere  pictures  of  them  drawn  by  others; — they  pointed 
to  the  obvious  truth,  that  the  world  is  older  and  vastly  more  experi- 
enced than  it  was  two  thousand  years  ago  ;  that  in  regard  to  all  that 
relates  to  human  knowledge,  the  present  generation  are  really  the 
ancients.  They  believed  that  much  time  was  lust  by  the  indiscrimi- 
nate and  exclusive  use  of  the  classics  as  the  foundation  of  education, 
which  ought  to  bo  spent  in  acquisition  of  practical  knowledge  ;  and 
that  by  this  tedious  and  laborious  task,  without  any  perceptible  ad- 
vantage to  the  pupil,  they  were  often  disgusted  with  every  species 
f  *■  intellectual  effort.     They  ajsa  pointed  out  the  moral  corruption 


4  rREFACK. 

which  arises  from  many  of  the  examples  and  sentiments  of  the 
ancients,  and  especially  disapproved  that  discipline  of  compulsion 
and  violence,  by  which  children  have  been  forced  to  this  ungrateful 
employment.  They  urged  the  importance  of  leadiiig  by  the  attrac- 
tion of  knowledge  itself,  rather  than  by  force.  They  paid  much 
attention  to  the  developement  of  the  bodilj'  constitution  and  powers, 
and  professed  to  aim  at  forming  men,  and  not  mere  scholars. 

"  But,  with  the  ordinary  weakness  of  human  nature,  in  avoiding 
one  extreme,  they  ran  into  the  opposite.  They  forgot  the  valuable 
influence  of  these  studies,  properly  regulated,  upon  the  faculties 
and  habits  of  the  mind. 

"  Notwithstanding  their  error,  the  Philanthropists  unquestionably 
exerted  much  influence  on  the  improvement  of  education.  The 
extravagant  views  of  the  Humanists  were  considerably  modified, 
and  although  many  still  retain  the  exclusive  maxims  of  their  pre 
decessors,  many  admit,  as  stated  in  the  German  '  Conversations 
Lexicon,'  that  '  all  should  be  embraced  in  education  which  can  pro- 
mote llie  formation  of  the  man,  and  prepare  him  for  the  cterjial  destiny 
of  his  spirit.'  Tlie  Philanthropists  also  prepared  the  way  for  theii 
successors  of  the  School  of  Fcstulozzi.  This  remarkable  man  adopted 
many  of  the  opinions  of  his  predecessors  of  the  Philanthropic  school, 
especially  thoac  which  related  to  the  developement  of  the  bodily 
powers,  and  the  methods  of  discipline,  and  religious  instruction. 
Pie  perceived,  however,  that,  in  assuming  practical  utility  as  the 
exclusive  test  of  the  value  of  particular  objects  of  instruction,  they 
had  too  mucli  neglected  the  developement  of  the  mind  itself.  In  seek- 
ing to  avoid  this  error,  however,  he  did  not  entirely  escape  the  other 
extreme.  He  assumed,  as  a  fundamental  principle,  that  a  certain 
developement  of  mind  was  necessary  for  every  rank  and  every  occu- 
pation. The  means  of  this  developement  he  supposed  himself  to 
have  found,  so  far  as  the  intellectual  faculties  were  concerned,  in 
the  elements  of  form  and  number,  which  are  combined  in  the  science 
of  Matlicvuitics,  ia  Language,  and  in  jYuUiral  History.  The  Math- 
ematics appear  to  have  assumed  a  preponderance  in  practice,  which 
was  uirfavorablc  to  the  regular  and  harmonious  cultivation  of  other 
powers.  The  senses  and  the  bodily  powers  he  endeavored  to  de- 
vclope,  in  accordance  with  the  views  of  the  Philanthropic  school,  by 
the  careful  examination  of  the  various  objects  of  nature  and  art,  which 
surround  the  pupil,  by  meaiiis  of  music,  and  by  gymnastic  exercises, 
alternated  or  combined  with  labor.  Pestalozzi  himself  was  remarka- 
bly the  creature  of  powerful  impulses,  which  were  usually  of  the 
most  mild  and  bcnevoleat  kind,  and  preserved  a  child-like  character 
in  this  respect,  even  to  old  age.  It  was  probably  this  temperament 
which  led  him  to  estimate  at  a  low  rate  the  importance  of  positive 
religious  truth  in  the  education  of  children,  and  to  maintain  that  the 
mere  habit  of  faith  and  love,  if  cultivated  towards  earthly  parents 
and  benefactors,  would  of  course  be  transferred  to  our  heavenly 
Father,  wliene\'Er  his  character  should  be  exhibited  to  the  mind 
of  the  child.  The  fundamental  error  of  this  view  was  established 
by  the  unhappy  experience  of  his  own  institution ;  and  his  own  ex- 
ample afforded  the  most  striking  evidence  that  the  noblest  impulses, 
not  directed  by  established  principles,  may  lead  to  imprudence  and 
ruin,  and  thus  defeat  their  own   ends.*     This   principle,  combined 

*  As  an  example  of  this,  it  may  bo  mentioned  that,  on  one  of  those  occaeiona  (fre- 
quently occnrring)  on  which  lie  was  reduced  to  extremity  for  want  of  the  means  of  sup- 
plying his  large  family,  ho  borrowed  $400  from  a  friend  for  this  purpose.  In  going 
homo,  lio  met  a  peasant  wringing  his  hands  in  despair  for  the  loss  of  his  cow.  Pes- 
teloz7.i  put  tlic  entire  bag  of  money  into  his  hands,  and  ran  off  to  escape  bis  thankk 


PREFACE.  » 

with  the  want  of  tact  in  reference  to  the  affairs  of  common  lift, 

materially  impaired  liis  powers  of  usefulness  as  a  j)ractical  instructor 
of  youth.  The  rapid  projrress  of  his  ideas  rarely  allowed  him  t« 
execute  his  own  plans  ■  and,  accordiiij)'  to  his  own  system,  too  much 
time  was  employed  in  the  profound  devoloperncnt  of  principles  to 
admit  of  much  attention  to  their  practical  application.  JJut,  as  one 
of  his  admirers  observed,  he  seemed  destined  to  educate  ideas  and 
not  children,  lie  combated,  with  unshrinking  boldness,  and  untir- 
ing perseverance,  through  a  long  life,  l)oth  by  his  example  and  by 
his  numerous  publications,  the  prejudices  and  abuses  of  the  age,  in 
reference  to  education.  He  attacked,  with  great  vigor  and  no  small 
degree  of  success,  that  favorite  maxim  of  bigotry  and  tyranny,  that 
obedience  and  devotion  are  the  legitimate  offspring  of  ignorance. 
He  denounced  that  degrading  sysiem  which  considers  it  enough  to 
enable  man  to  prociire  a  subsistence  for  himself  and  his  offspring — 
and  in  this  manner  to  merelv  place  him  on  a  level  with  the  beast  of 
the  forest;  and  which  deems  every  thing  lost  whose  value  cannot  be 
estimated  in  money.  He  urged  upon  the  consciences  of  parents  and 
of  rulers,  with  an  energy  approachinu-  that  of  the  ancient  prophets, 
the  solemn  duties  which  Divine  Providence  had  imposed  upon  them, 
in  committing  to  their  charge  the  present  and  future  destinies  of 
their  fellow  beings.  In  this  way  he  produced  an  impulse,  v/hich 
pervaded  the  continent  of  Eurojjo,  and  which,  by  means  of  his  popu 
lar  and  tlieoretical  vi'orks,  reached  the  cottages  of  the  poor  and 
palaces  of  the  great.  His  institution  at  Yverdun  was  crowded  with 
men  of  every  nation,  not  merely  those  who  were  led  by  the  same 
benevolence  which  inspired  him,  but  by  the  agents  of  kings,  and 
noblemen,  and  public  institutions,  who  came  to  make  themselves 
acquainted  with  his  principles,  in  order  to  become  fellow-laborers  in 
his  plans  of  benevolence. 

"  It  is  to  these  companions  of  his  labors,  most  of  whom  resided  in 
Germany  or  Switzerland,  that  wo  owe  the  formation  of  another 
school,  which  has  lieen  styled  the  Productive  School,,  and  which  now 
predominates  in  Germany  and  Switzerland.  It  might,  perhaps  with 
equal  propriety,  be  termed  tlie  Eclectic  Scliool ;  for  it  aims  at  embody- 
ing all  the  valuable  principles  of  previous  systems,  without  .adhering 
slavishly  to  the  dictates  of  any  master,  or  the  views  of  any  party. 
It  rejects  alike  the  idolatrous  homag'3  to  the  classics,  wliich  was  paid 
by  the  Humanists — tiie  unreasonable  jjrejudices  of  the  Philanthro- 
l)ists  against  classical  and  merely  literary  pursuits — and  the  undue 
predilection  for  the  mere  expansion  of  mind,  to  the  neglect  of  posi- 
tive knowledge  and  practical  application,  wliich  characterized  too 
many  of  the  Pestalozzian  school. 

"  The  leading  jjpinciple  of  this  system,  is  that  wliich  its  nam® 
indicates — that  the  child  should  be  regarded  not  as  a  mere  recipient 
of  the  ideas  of  others,  but  as  an  agent  capable  of  collecting,  and 
originating,  and  producing  most  of  the  ideas  which  are  necessary  for 
its  education,  when  presented  with  the  objects  or  the  facts  from  which 
they  may  be  derived.  While,  0!i  the  ono  hand,  they  are  careful  not 
to  reduce  the  pupil  to  a  mere  machine,  to  be  moved  bj^  the  will 
of  his  instructor  in  an  assigned  direction,  or  a  mass  of  passive  mat- 
ter, to  be  formed  by  him  according  to  his  own  favorite  model,  they 
are  equall}' careful  to  avoid  the  extreme,  into  which  some  of  the 
preceding  school  have  fallen,  of  leaving  him  to  wander  indefinitely 
in  a  wrong  direction  in  search  of  truth,  in  order  to  secure  to  him 
the  merit  of  discovery.  They  consider  a  course  of  education  as 
divided  into  two  parts — the  period  of  dcv elopement  and  the  period  qf 


6  rilEFACE. 

acquisition.  In  the  first  period,  wlach  they  consider  as  pardcularly 
devoted  to  developing  the  faculties  and  forming  the  habits  of  the  mind, 
in  order  to  prepare  it  as  an  instrument  for  future  operations, Uiey  em- 
ploy the  inductive  process  chiefly.  Time  is  net  liere  of  so  much 
importauco  as  the  habit  of  investigation  and  effort,  which  can  only 
be  acquired  by  meeting  and  overcoming  difficulties.  This  period, 
wliich  must  be  made  longer  or  shorter  according  to  the  character 
of  the  puj)il,  or  the  necessity  that  his  circumstances  in  life  may  im- 
pose, is  succeeded  by  the  period  of  acquisition,  in  which  the  mind  is 
more  especially  called  upon  to  exercise  tlie  powers  which  have  been 
previouslij  developed  and  cultivated,  in  the  acquisition  of  such  positive 
liuoicledge  as  may  jjrcpare  the  individual  for  life  and  action.  The 
inductive  process  is  still  employed  as  much  as  possible,  not  only  be- 
cause it  has  become,  for  many  cases,  the  sliortest  and  most  agreeable, 
but  because  it  is  important  to  maintain  the  habits  it  has  produced, 
and  mvigorate  the  faculties  it  has  ser\^ed  to  develope. 

"  But  still  it  is  far  less  employed  than  previously,  and  the  pupil 
is  never  suflered  to  waste  his  time  in  attempting  to  create  a  sci- 
ence for  himself,  and  thus  deprived  of  the  benefit  of  the  experience 
of  sages  and  centuries.  On  the  contrary,  they  deem  his  mind 
capable  of  being  elevated  even  more  rapidly  by  following  the  pro- 
cesses of  patient  investigation,  by  which  the  most  exalted  minds 
have  arrived  at  results  that  astonish  and  delight  him,  and  of  thus 
learnuig  to  imitate  strides,  wliich  seem  to  him  like  those  of  a  giant, 
and  to  cultivate  those  habits  of  untiring  attention,  which  the  greatest 
philosophers  have  declared  to  be  the  principal  source  of  that  telescopic 
glance,  that  almost  unerring  uower  of  discrimination,  which  seems 
to  others  so  nearly  miraculous 

'■  Such  is  the  Productive  System,  by  which  the  powers  of  the 
pupil  arc  called  into  complete  exercise  by  requiring  him  to  attempt 
a  task  unaided,  and  then  assisting  him  in  correcting  his  own  errors, 
or  returning  fronr  his  own  wanderings,  before  he  is  discouraged  by 
the  waste  of  time  and  the  fruitlessness  of  his  efforts.  They  distin- 
guish carefully  between  knowledge  and  the  means  of  obtaining  it. 
To  cultivate  the  senses,  and  present  the  objects  which  they  are  capa- 
ble of  examining,  is  to  open  to  the  child  the  sources  of  knoiclcdge — 
to  place  before  him  a  book  which  is  ever  open,  and  in  which  he  may 
every  moment  read.  This,  they  maintain,  is  the  first  and  most 
obvious  ])art  of  education,  according  to  the  dictates  of  common  sense. 
It  is  one  in  which  notlung  but  truth  is  presented  to  him,  and  which, 
by  calling  his  powers  into  constant  exercise,  ensures  their  improve- 
ment, and  cultivates  a  spirit  of  investigation." 

The  preceding  extracts  are  taken  from  Art.  I.  Vol.  I. 
No.  VI.  of  the  American  Journal  of  Education,  New  Series. 
The  author  avails  himself  of  this  opportunity  to  express  his 
obligations  to  the  conductors  of  this  valuable  periodical.  A 
constant  perusal  of  its  pages  has  afforded  him  many  valuable 
ideas  on  the  subject  of  education,  and  he  cheerfully  ac- 
knowledges material  assistance  derived  from  it  in  the  prepa- 
ration of  the  "Productive  System  of  English  Grammar," 
which  is  now  respectfully  submitted  to  the  candid  examina- 
tion of  the  Dublic. 

THE  AUTHOR. 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


I.     OF  THE  NOUN 


Q.  What  is  your  name  ? 

Q.  What  is  the  )iame  of  the  town  in  which  you  live  ? 

Q.  What  does  the  word  noun  mean  ? 

Jhis.  The  word  noim  means  name. 

Q.  What,  tlien,  may  your  name  be  called  1 

1.  A  NOUN. 

Q.  What  may  all  names  be  called  1 

2.  Nouns. 

Q.  Boston  is  the  name  of  a  place  ;  is  Boston  a  noim  ?  and  if  so,  why  ? 

3.  Boston  is  a  noun,  because  it  is  a  name. 

Q.  Hudson  is  the  name  of  a  river  :  is  Hudson  a  nomi,  and  why  ? 

Q.  Book  is  the  name  of  sometliing  to  read  in  :  is  book  a  noun,  and  why  ? 

Q.  Will  you  now  inform  me  what  a  noun  is  ? 

4.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place,  or  thing. 

Q.  Will  you  mention  two  nouns  the  names  of  persons  ?  two,  tlie  names 
of  thing^s  ?  two,  the  names  of  diffeient  places  ? 

Q.  Will  you  tell  me  which  \\ords  are  the  nouns  in  the  following  sentences, 
as  1  read  them  to  you  ? 

"  Thomas  and  Joseph  are  in  the  house." 

"  The  horse  and  cow  are  in  the  lot." 

"  The  hawk  and  the  eagle  have  flown  to  the  mountain." 

"Trees,  corn,  potatoes  and  apples  grow  in  the  fields." 


II.     NUMBER. 

Q.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  word  number ;  as,  "  The  number  of  bui 
tins  on  your  coat"  1 

5.  Number  means  a  sum  that  may  he  counted. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  singular  mean  1 

6.  It  means  one. 

Q.  When,  then,  I  speak  of  one  thing  only,  as  chair,  what  number  is  it  ? 

7.  Singular  number. 

Q.  What,  then,  does  the  singular  number  of  nouns  denote  ? 

8.  The  singular  number  denotes  but  one  thing. 


8  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Q.  Of  what  number  is  book,  ;iiid  w  liy  ? 

9.  Book  is  of  the  singular  number,  because  it  means 
but  one. 

Q.  Of  what  number  is  chuir,  and  v:\\y  7 
Q.  What  does  the  word  plural  mean  1 

10.  It  means  more  than  one. 

Q.  Of  what  miinher  is  lain^is,  and  w  hy  ? 

11.  Lamps  is  of  the  plural  number,  because  it  means 
more  than  one. 

Q.  Of  what  number  is  hikntand,  and  why  ? 

Q.  By  adding  s  to  c/ore,  we  have  doves,  and  fs  to  box,  we  have  Z)o.tm 
How,  then,  is  the  plural  number  of  nouns  usually  formed  ? 

12.  By  adding  s  or  es  to  the  singular. 

Q.  Will  you  spell  the  \-)\\xtk\  oi  ounce?  glass  f  vindow?  theatre?  antece 
dent  7  church  ?  labi/riuilt  ? 

Q.  How  many  numbers  do  nouns  appear  lo  have,  and  what  are  they  ? 

13.  Two,  the  singular  and  plural. 

Q.  Will  you  name  a  noun  of  the  singular  Bumber  ?   one  of  the  phira* 
iiumlier  ? 


111.     GENDER 

Q.  What  does  the  vvord  gender  mean  ? 

14.  Gender  signifies  sex. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  masculine  mean  7 

15.  It  means  male. 

Q    John  is  the  name  of  a  male  :  of  what  gender  or  sex,  then,  is  John? 

10.  Of  the  m.asculine  or  male  gender. 

Q.  What  nouns,  then,  are  said  to  be  of  the  masculine  gender  7 

17.  The  names  of  males. 

Q.  What  gender,  then,  is  mov,  and  why  7 

18.  Man  is  of  the  masculine  gender,  because  it  is 
the  name  of  a  male. 

Q.  Of  what  gender  is  nncle,  and  why  7  faUier  ?  w  hy  7 
Q.  What  doGi  feminine  meiui  7 

19.  It  means /e/rtoZe. 

Q.  Smart,  is  the  name  of  a  female  :  of  what  gender,  then,  is  Snsan? 

20.  Of  the  feminine  gender. 

Q.  What  nouns,  then,  arc  said  to  be  of  the  feminine  gender  7 

-   21.  The  names  of  females. 

Q.  What  gencier  is  woman,  and  why  7 

22.  Woman  is  of  the  fenriinine  gender,  because  it  is 
the  name  of  a  female. 

Q.  Of  what  gender  is  omU,  and  why  7  daughter?  why  7 
Q.  What  does  tlie  word  n(uier  mean  7 

23.  It  means  neither. 

Q.  Chair  is  the  name  neither  of  a  male  nor  a  female  :  what  gender,  then, 
may  it  properly'  be  called  7 

24.  Neuter  gender. 

Q.  What  nouns,  'then,  may  be  said  to  be  of  the  neuter  gender? 


NOUWS.  9 

25.  The  names  of  objects  that  are  neither  males  nor 
females. 

Q.  Of  what  gciidiT  is  iii/ciiaiul,  and  why  ? 

26.  Neuter  gender,  because  it  is  the  name  neither 
of  a  male  nor  female. 

Q.  Of  what  goiider  is  bench  ?  vi  hy  ?  chair  ?  why  1 

Q.  Parent,  you  know,  is  tlie  name  citlicr  of  father  or  inotiier,  that  is.  it  is 
a  iianie  common  to  both:  of  vviiat  gender,  dien,  shall  wo  tall  such  nouns  as 
liarent,  bird,  Sic.  ? 

27.  Common  gender. 

Q.  What  nouns,  then,  niaj'  be  said  to  he  of  the  common  gender  ? 

28.  The  names  of  such  animals  as  may  be  either 
males  or  females. 

Q.  Of  what  g-ender  is  sheep,  and  why  ? 

29.  Sheep  is  of  the  common  gender,  because  it  is 
the  name  either  of  a  male  or  female. 

Q.  Of  \\liat  gender  is  robin,  and  why  1 

Q.  How  many  genders  do  nouns  appear  to  have,  and  what  are  lliey  ? 

oO.  Four — the  masculine,  the  feminine,  the  neuter, 
and  the  common. 

Q.  Will  you  name  a  noun  of  the  masculine  gender  ?  one  of  the  femiuine  ! 
one  of  the  neuter  ?  one  of  the  common  ? 

Q.  Will  yoLi  name  the  gen<ler  and  number  of  each  noun  in  the  following 
sentences,  as  i  read  them  to  you  ? 

"  James  and  Wilham."  "  Slate  and  pencil." 

«'  John  and  the  p-irls."  "  Women  and  birds." 


IV.     PROPER  AND  COMMON  NOUNS. 

Q.  What  is  the  moaning  of  the  word  common ;  as,  "  A  common  com- 
plaint" ? 

31.  Cojnmon  means  general. 

Q.  Although  there  are  n  vast  many  male  children  in  the  world,  each  one 
may  be  called  by  the  general  name  of  boy :  what  kind  of  a  nomi,  then,  would 
you  call  boij  1 

32.  A  common  noun. 

Q.  When,  then,  is  a  noim  called  common  ? 

33.  When  it  is  a  general  name. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  pivper  mean  ? 

34.  It  means  ^i  or  particular. 

Q.  John,  you  know,  is  the  particular  name  of  a  boy  :  what  kind  of  a  noun, 
then,  may  it  be  called  ? 

35.  A  proper  noun. 

Q.  When,  then,  may  a  noun  be  called  proper  ? 

36.  When  it  is  a  particular  name. 

Q.  What  kind  of  a  noun  is  Susan,  and  why  ?  _     _ 

37.  Susan  is  a  proper  noun,  because  it  is  a  particu- 
lar name. 

Q.  What  kind  of  a  noun  is  John,  and  why  7 


10  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

Q.  What  kind  of  a  noun  is  i-iver,  and  why  ? 

3S.  River  is  a  common  noun,  because  it  is  a  gene- 
ral name. 

Q.  How  many  kinds  of  nouns  do  there  appear  to  be,  and  what  are  they  ? 

Q.  What  kind  of  a  noun  is  girls?  Marij?  town?  New  York?  London? 
boat !  chain  ? 

Q.  Will  you  now  toll  me  which  words  arc  the  nouns  in  the  following  sen- 
tences ;  which  are  |)ropcr,  and  w  hich  comm(ni ;  also  their  gender  and  number  ? 

•'Thomas  and  John."  "  King  and  queen." 

"Susan  and  Mary."  "  House  and  barn." 


*    V.      PERSON. 

Q.  When  a  person,  in  speakinjj,  snys,  •'  I,  Jolin,  will  do  it,"  what  person 
do  grammarians  call  Joint  ? 

39.  The  first  person. 

Q.  When,  then,  is  a  noun  of  the  first  person  ? 

40.  When  it  is  the  npjne  of  the  person  speaking. 

Q.  When  I  say,  '•  James,  inind  3'our  studies,"  what  person  do  grammarians 
call  James  ? 

41.  The  second  person,  being  the  person  spoken  to. 

Q.  When,  then,  is  a  noun  of  the  second  person  ? 

42.  When  it  is  the  name  of  tlie  })erson  spoken  to, 
or  addressed. 

Q.  "  William,  James  has  come."     What  person  is  William,  aaid  why  ? 

43.  Of  the  second  person,  because  WilHam  is  spoken 
to. 

Q.  When  1  say,  "  William,  James  has  come  "  I  am  speaking  to  William 
about  James  :  of  what  person,  then,  is  James,  and  wliy  ? 

44.  Of  the  third  person,  because  James  was  spoken 
of  5  that  is,  I  was  talking  about  James. 

Q,.  When,  then,  is  a  noun  of  the  third  person  ? 

45.  When  it  is  spoken  of. 

Q.  "  Thomas,  Rufus  is  in  the  garden."     What  person  is  TTiotiuis  ?  why  ? 
Is  R?ifus  ?  w  h\  ? 

Q.  How  many  persons  do  nouns  appear  to  have,  and  wliat  are  they? 

46.  Three  persons — the  first,  second,  and  third. 

Q.  Will  you  inform  me  wliich  of  the  following  nouns  are  proper,  which 
common  ;  also  their  gender,  number,  and  person  ? 

"  I,  James,  of  Boston."  "  Boy  and  girl." 

"  Henry,  study  your  book."        "  William  and  his  sister.' 


VI.     CASE. 

Q.  We  say  of  im  animal,  for  instance  a  horse,  when  lie  is  fat,  that  "  He  is 
m  a  good  case" ;  and,  when  he  is  lean,  that  "  He  is  in  a  bad  case"  !  what, 
therefore,  does  the  word  case  mean  ? 

47.    Case  means  condition,  state,  &.c. 


CASES.  11 

Q,.  Wlien  I  say,  "  Charles  strikes  William,"  "  William  strikes  Charles," 
you  may  perceive  llial  the  state  or  condition  of  Charles  in  the  former  example 
IS  quite  dilferent  from  his  state  or  condition  in  the  latter:  in  tlie  one,  Charles 
strikes ;  in  the  other,  he  is  struck ;  what,  tlicn,  is  mcaut  by  the  different  cases 
of  nouns  ? 

48.  Tiie  different  condition  or  position  they  have  in 
relation  to  other  words  in  the  same  sentence. 

Q.  What  does  the  worti  nominative  mean  ? 

49.  JVominative  means  naming. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  John  strikes,"  he  evidently  does  something :  what,  theu, 
may  John  be  called  ? 

50.  An  actor  or  doer. 

Q.  Well,  then,  as  the  actor  or  doer  is  considered  the  naming  or  leading 
noun,  in  what  case  is  John,  when  I  say,  "  John  strikes"  ? 

51.  In  the  nominative  case. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  the  nominative  case  of  nouns  ? 

52.  The  nominative  case  is  the  agent  or  doer. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  The  dog  runs,"  in  what  case  is  dog,  and  why  ? 

53.  Dog  is  in  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is  the 
agent,  actor,  or  doer. 

Q.  "  The  cat  catches  mice."     In  what  case  is  cat,  and  why  ? 
Q.  Wlien  I  say,  "  Thomas  is  pursuing  the  thief,"  what  is  the  object  here 
which  Thomas  is  pursuing  ? 

54.  Thief. 

Q    What  does  the  word  ohjective  mean  '.' 

55.  It  means  belonging  to  the  object. 

Q.  Ill  what  case,  then,  may  thief  he  reckoned,  in  the  phrase,  "Thomas 
pursues  llie  thief"  ? 

56.  In  the  objective  case. 

Q.  What,  then,  does  the  objective  case  denote  ? 

57.  The  objective  case  denotes  the  object. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  William  whips  John,"  in  what  case  is  Johi,  and  why? 

58.  In  the  objective  case,  because  John  is  the  ob- 
ject. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  possessive  imply  ? 

59.  Possession,  oivnership,  property,  &-c. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  Tl  is  John's  slate,"  1  mean  to  say  that  John  owns  the 
ate  :  in  what  case,  then,  shall  we  reckon  .John's  ? 

60.  In  the  possessive  case. 

Q.  What,  then,  does  i!ie  possessive  case  of  nouns  denote  ? 

61.  The  possessive  case  denotes  possession,  prop- 
erty, &c. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  Peicr's  kiiir<;,"  who  owns  or  possesses  the  knife  ? 
Q.  In  what  ensc.  then,  is  Pi>ters,  and  why? 

62.  In  the  possessive  case,  because  Peter  possesses 
the  knife. 

Q.  In  the  example  "  John's  slate,"  you  perceive  that  .John's  ends  in  s,  with 
a  comma  before  it:  what  is  the  comma,  and  what  is  the  s,  called  in  grammar? 

63.  The  comma  is  called  an  apostrophe,  and  the  s, 
an  apostrophic  s. 

Q.  You  also  perceive  that  John's  is  singular :  how,  then,  do  noims  in  the 
singular  uumber  usually  form  their  possessive  case  ? 


12  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

64.  By  taking  after  them  an  apostrophe  with  the 
letter  5  following  it. 

Q.  "  On  eagles'  wings."  Here  eagles'  is  plural,  and  in  the  possessive 
case  :  how,  tiien,  do  nouns  in  the  plufal  usually  form  their  possessive  case  ? 

65.  Simply  by  taking  the  apostrophe  without  the 
addition  of  s. 

Q.  But  if  the  plural  noun  docs  not  end  in  s,  as,  "  men's  concerns/'  how  is 
the  possessive  case  formed  ? 

66.  As  the  same  case  in  the  singular  number  is 
formed. 

Q.  From  the  foregoing  remarks,  how  inaiiy  cases  do  noiuis  appear  to  have, 

and  \\hat  are  they  ? 

67.  Three — the  nominative,  possessive  and  objec- 
tive. 

Q.  Decline  sometimes  means  to  vanj  the  endings  of  a  tcord :  what,  then 
do  1  mean  when  I  ask  you  to  ilecline  a  noun  ? 

68.  To  tell  its  different  cases  or  endings. 

Q.  Will  you  decline  John  ? 

69.     JVominative  case,       John. 
Possessive  case,         John's. 
Objective  case,  John. 

Q.  Will  you  decline  hoij,  in  l)otli  numbers  ? 

Singular.  Plural. 

70.     JV&m.  Boy.  JYom.  Boys. 

Poss.    Boy's.  Poss.   Boys'. 

Obj.     Boy.  Obj.     Boys. 

Q.  When  I  say  •'  William's  coal,"  yon  perceive  thai  ilie  noun  coat  follows 

William's  :  by  what  is   William's  said  to  be  governed,  and  why  ? 

71.  By  coat,  because  it  follows  lVmiain''s. 

Q.  What,  then,  may  be  considered  a  rule  for  goxeniing  the  possessive 
case? 

The  possessive  case  is  governed  hy  the  folloimng 
noun. 

Q.  "William's  hai."     Is  William's  a  proper  or  common  noun?     Why? 

(3G.r 

Q.  What  is  its  persoa  ?  whv  ?  (4o.)»  Its  number?  why?  (8.)*  Its  gen- 
der ?  why?  (17.)*  Its  case?  why?  (Gl.)*  What  noun  follows  WillianCs? 
What  wtird.  then,  governs   Williaiii'sf     What  is  the  rule? 

Q.  When  we  mention  the  several  pripenies  of  the  difiercnt  words  in  sen- 
ton<es.  in  the  same  manner  as  we  have  tiiose  of  William's,  above,  wliat  is  the 
exercise  called  ? 

72.  Parsing. 

EXFJU^ISKS  IN   PARSING. 
"  Johnh  knife.'" 

73.  John's  is  a  noun,  because  it  is  a  name — proper,  be- 
cause it  i.s  a  particular  name — mascuunf,  c.knder  ;  it  is  the 
name  of  a  male — tuuu>  rKU.-^nN  ;   it  is  spoken  of — siN<iLi.AK 

.  *  ileler  back  to  this  nmuber. 


ARTICLES.  18 

NUMBER ;  it  means  but  one — possessive  case  ;    it  implies 
possession — and  it  is  governed   by  the  noun  knife,  accord 
ing  to 

Rule  I.  The  possessive  case  is  governed  hy  the  following 
noun. 

Knife  is  a  noun;  it  is  a  name — commojN;  it  is  a  general 
name — neuter  gender;  it  is  neither  male  nor  female — 
THIRD  person;  it  is  spoken  of — singular  numijer;  it  means 
but  one. 

O'  Let  the  learner  jxirse  the  foregoing,  till  the  mode  of  parsing  tka 
notin  is  so  familiar  to  him,  that  he  can  do  it  readily,  without  looking  in 
the  book.  He  may  then  take  the  folloioing  exercises ^chich  are  to  he 
parsed  in  a  similar  manner. 

EXERCISES    IN     PARSING    CONTINUED. 

"Peter's  cap."  "Stephen's  coat."        "  Brother's  knife  " 

*' John's  slate.",       "Father's  house."       "Boys'  hats." 


VII.     OF  ARTICLES. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  Cii\c  iiic  a  book,"  T  eviilcull}-  ineaii  no  particular  book, 
bat  when  I  say,  "  Give  iiic  tlio  hook,"  \vl;at  do  1  moan  l 

74.  Some  particular  book. 

Q.  Wliicli  are  tlie  words  tliat  make  this  difterence  in  meaning? 

75.  A  and  the. 

Q.  Wiiat  are  these  iidle  words  called  ? 

76.  Articles. 

Q.  Wliat,  then,  are  articles  ? 

77.  Articles  are  words  placed  before  nouns  to  limit 
their  meaning. 

Q.  What  is  the  meaning'  of  the  word  definite  ? 

78.  Definite  means  particular. 

Q.  "Gixe  me  the  hook.'     Here  a  particular  hook  is  referred  (o :  wliat 
kind  of  an  article,  then,  shall  we  call  the? 

79.  Definite  article. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  a  definite  article  ? 

80.  It  points  out  what  particular  thing  or  things  are 
meant. 

Q.  The  word  in,  when  placed  before  words,  frequently  signifies  Tiot :  what^ 
then,  will  indefiinta  mean  ? 

81.  JVot  definite. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "Give  mc  a  knife,"  no  particular  knife  is  meant:  what 
kind  of  an  article,  then,  may  a  he  called? 

82.  Indefinite  article. 

Q.  Why  is  it  so  called  ? 

83.  Because  it  is  not  used  before  the  name  of  any 
particular  person  or  thing 

a 


14  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Q.  We  say  "  an  apple,"  "  an  inkstand,"  &c.  in  preference  to  "  a  apple  '' 
"  « inkstand,"  &c. :  why  is  this  ? 

S4.  Because  it  is  easier  to  speak,  and  also  more 
pleasant  to  the  ear. 

Q.  What  kind  of  letters  do  apple  and  inkstand  begin  with  ? 

85.  Vowels. 

Q.  In  what  cases  do  we  use  an  instead  of  a  ? 

86.  Before  words  beginning  with  the  vowels  a,  e,  i, 
0,  u. 

Q.  In  speaking,  we  say,  "  a  man,"  not  "  an  maji"  :  when,  then,  do  W9 
use  a? 

87.  Before  words  beginning  with  consonants. 

Q.  Which  letters  are  consonants  1 

88.  All  the  letters  of  the  alphabet,  except  the  vow- 
els, which  are  a,  e,  t,  o,  u;  and  also  w  and  y,  except 
at  the  beginning  of  words,  when  they  are  consonants 

Q,.  How,  then,  do  a  and  an  ditTer  ? 

89.  Only  in  their  use ;  a  being  used  before  conso* 
nants,  and  an  before  vowels :  both  are  called  by  the 
same  name. 

Q.  How  many  articles  do  there  appear  to  be,  and  wjiat  are  they  ? 

90.  Two — a  or  an,  and  the. 

Q.  It  is  customary  to  say,  "  a  boy,"  not  "  a  boys"  ;  also,  "  an  inkstand," 
not  "  an  inkstands"  :  of  what  number,  then,  must  the  noun  be,  before  which 
the  indefinite  article  is  placed  '? 

91.  The  singular  number. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  the  rule  for  the  indefinite  article  ? 
■RTJImH    XI. 

The  indefinite  article  a  or  an  belongs  to  nouns 
of  the  singular  number. 

Q.  We  can  say,  "  the  boy,"  and  "  the  hoys"  ;  using  a  noun  either  of  the 
singular  or  plural  number  after  the :  what,  llien,  is  the  rule  for  the  definite 
article  ? 

RtTiii:  III. 

The  definite  article  the  belongs  to  nouns  in  the 
singular  or  plural  number, 

EXERCISES  IN    PARSING. 
"  The  boy." 

92.  The  is  an  article,  a  word  placed  before  nouns  to 
limit  their  meaning — definite  ;  it  means  a  particular  boy — 
and  belongs  to  bnj/,  according  to 

Rule  III.  7Vie  (Ufinitc  article  the  belongs  to  nouns  of  the 
singular  or  plural  number. 

Boy  is  a  noun;  it  is  a  name — common;  it  is  a  general 
name — masculine  gender  ;  it  is  the  name  of  a  male — third 
person  ;  it  is  spoken  of — and  singular  number  ;  it  means 
but  one. 


ADJECTIVES.  15 

KXERCISES    IN     PARSING    CONTINUED. 

\  hand."  "An  eagle."  "The  man."  "The  boys'  hats." 

A  man."  "An  insect."  "  The  men."  "  A  man's  cap." 

'Amite."  "An  acorn."  "  The  boys."  "The  girls' room." 

•'A  month."  "An  ounce."  "  The  mice."  •'  The  lady's  box." 


VIII.    OF  ADJECTIVES. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  Jolin  is  an  obedient,  industrious,  and  good  boy,"  I  use 
certain  words  to  describe  Iwij :  wliicli  are  diey  ? 

93.  Industrious,  obedient,  and  good. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  a  good  man,"  to  what  word  is  the  describing  word  good 
joined  or  added  ? 

94.  To  the  noun  man. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  adjective  mean  ? 

95.  Joined  or  added  to. 

Q.  What,  then,  shall  we  call  such  describing  words  as  good,  obedient,  in- 
dustiious,  &c.  ? 

96.  Adjectives. 

Q.  What,  then,  are  adjectives  ? 

97.  Adjectives  are  words  joined  to  nouns  to  describe 
or  qualify  them. 

Q.  "  A  wise  man."     Which  word  is  the  adjective  here,  Euid  why  1 
Q.  "  Rufus  is  a  good  boy,  but  James  is  a  better  ene."     How  are  Rufiis 
and  James  spoken  of  here  ? 

98.  In  comparison  with  each  other. 

Q.  The  adjectives  in  the  last  example  are  good  and  better :  can  you  tell 
me  which  of  these  words  denotes  a  higher  degree  of  excellence  than  the  other  7 

99.  The  word  better. 

Q.  What  degree  of  comparison,  then,  shall  we  call  better  ? 

100.  Comparative  degree. 

Q.  What,  then,  does  the  comparative  degree  imply  ? 

101.  A  comparison  between  two. 

Q.  "  William  is  tall,  Thomas  is  taller,  but  Rufus  is  the  tallest  boy  in  school." 
What  is  meant  here  by  tallest  ? 

102.  Exceeding  all  in  height. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  svperlatii-e  mean  ? 

103.  Exceeding  all :  the  highest  or  loivest  degree. 

Q.  What  degree  of  comparison,  then,  shall  we  call  tallest  ? 

104.  Superlative  degree. 

Q.  What,  then,  does  the  superlative  degree  do  ? 

105.  It  increases  or  lessens  the  positive  to  the  high- 
est or  lowest  degree. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  James  is  a  good  boy,"  I  make  no  comparison  between 
him  and  any  other ;  but  simply  assert,  in  a  positive  manner,  that  James  is  a 
good  boy.     What  kind  of  a  sentence,  then,  would  you  call  this  ? 

106.  A  positive  sentence. 

Q.  Of  what  degree  of  comparison,  then,  shall  we  call  good  ? 

107.  The  positive  degree. 


Ifl  ENGLISH  GllAMMAR. 

Q.  Whal,  then,  does  the  positive  degree  do  ? 

108.  It  merely  describes,  without  any  comparisoft. 

Q.  Will  you  compare  great  ? 

109.  ^^ Positive,  great;  Comparative,  greater;  Su- 
perlative, greatest." 

Q.  Will  j'ou  coiTipare  irise  in  ihe  r.aiuc  inauiier  ? 

Q.  Wise  and  great  are  ^vorcls  of  cue  sjliable  :  lio>\',  then,  are  the  com- 
parative and  superlative  degrees  of  w  ords  of  this  sort  formed  1 

110.  By  adding  r  or  er,  st  or  est,  to  the  positive. 

Q.  Will  you  in  this  manner  compare  s?«aW  ?  high?  mean? 
Q.  Will  you  compare  beautiful  1 

111.  '■'■  Pos.  beautiful;  Comp.  more  beautiful;  Sup 
most  beautiful." 

Q.  How  many  syllables  compose  tlie  word  beautiful  ? 

112.  Three. 

Q.  How,  then,  aie  words  of  three,  or  more  syllables  than  one,  usually 

compared  ? 

113.  By  placing  more  and  most  before  the  positive. 

Q.  Will  you  ill  this  manner  compare  i/idustrious  ?  ingenious  ?  dutiful  7 
Q.  Will  you  conijccire  tviie,  by  using  the  words  less  emtl  least? 

114.  "  Pos.  wise  ;  Comp.  less  wise  ;  Sup.  least  wise." 

Q.  Will  you  in  like  manner  compare  benecolenl  ?  distivgirished  ?  dilatory  ? 

Q.  "  Good  men,  better  men,  best  men."  Which  adjective  hero  is  the  posi- 
tive, and  why?  (108.)  Which  the  comparative?  why?  (101.)  Wliich  the 
superlative?  why?  (105.) 

Q.  Good,  you  percei\'e,  is  not  compared  regularly,  like  great,  beautiftti, 
&LC. ;  and  since  there  are  many  words  of  this  description,  I  will  give  you  a  list 
of  the  principal  ones,  together  with  others,  regularly  compared  :  will  you  re- 
peat the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees,  as  I  name  the  positive  ] 

115.  Posith-c. 

Good, 
LiUlo, 

Much,  or  many, 
Bad,  ill,  cr  evil, 
Near, 
Old, 
Late, 

Q.  Froai  the  foregoing,  huv.-  many  degrees  of  comparison  do  there  appear 
lo  be,  and  what  are  they  ? 

IK).  Three — the  positive,  comparative,  and  super- 
lative. 

Q.  Adjectives,  you  recollect,  describe  nouns  :  to  what,  then,  do  they  natu 
rally  belong  ? 

Adjectives  belong  to  ihe  nouns  lohich  they  describe, 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
''Aiviser  child:' 
117.  A  is  an  article,  a  word  placed  before  nouns  to  limit, 
their  meaning — indefinite  ;  it  means  no  particular  child — 
and  belongs  to  child,  agreeably  to 

Rule  II.  The  indejinilc  article  a  or  an  belongs  to  nouns 
of  the  singular  7iu?nber. 


Co7npa?-atrcc. 

SvperUUivi. 

lletlcr, 

Best. 

Less, 

Least. 

More, 

Most. 

Worse, 

Worst, 

Nearer, 

Nearest,  or  next. 

Older, 

Oldest,  or  eldest. 

Later, 

Latest,  or  last. 

PRONOUNS.  I'' 

Wiser  is  an  adjective,  a  word  joined  with  a  noun  to 
describe  it — "Pos.  wise  ;  Conip.  wiiser  ;  Sup.  wisest" — made 
in  the  comparative  degree — and  belongs  to  cliild,  by 

Rule  IV.  Adjextivcs  belong  to  the  nouns  which  they  de- 
scribe. 

Child  is  a  noun  ;  it  is  a  name — commwn  ;  it  is  a  general 
name — common  gender  ;  it  may  be  either  male  or  temale — 
THIRD  person;  it  is  spoken  of — and  singular  number;  it 
means  but  one. 

EXERCISES    IN     PARSING    CONTINUED. 

1.  9.  3. 

•*  A  dutiful  son."     "  An  ii^ly  child."         "  The  base  man." 
"  An  idle  boy."       "  An  irksome  tasl:."     "  The  whiter  cloth." 
"A  foolish  son."     "  A  mild  reply."  "The  milder  weather." 

4.  5. 

"The  greatest  man."  "The  more  (1)  benevolent  citizen." 

"  The  wisest  prince."  "Thenmst  (1)  suitable  method." 

"  The  noblest  man."  "  The  least  (] )  distrustful  friend." 

6.  7. 

"  A  large,  convenient,  and    "  Tlie  last  choice." 

(1)  airy  habitation."        "The  best  man." 
"  The  intelligent,  industri-    "  The  nearest  relations." 

ous,  obedient,  and(l)    "Johnson's  (2)  large  dictionary." 
docile  scholar."  "  Murray's  small  grammar." 


IX.     OF  PRONOUNS. 

Q.  When  I  sa^-,  "John  goes  to  school.  .John  learns  fast,  and  John  will  ex- 
cel,"' how  can  1  speak  so  as  to  avoid  repeating  John  so  often  ? 

lis.  By  using  the  word  he.  in  its  place  ;  thus,  "  John 
goes  to  school,  he  learns  last,  and  he  will  excel." 

Q.  What  liule  word,  then,  may  stand  for  JoJtri  ? 

119.  He. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  proH07m  mean  ? 

120.  Standing  for,  or  instead  of,  a  noun. 

Q.  What,  then,  shall  we  call  the  word  he,  above  ? 

121.  A  PRONOUN. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  a  pronoun  ? 

122.  A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  for  a  noun,  to  avoid 
a  repetition  of  the  same  word. 

Q.  When  James  says,  "  I  will  study."  30U  perceive  that  /  stands  for  the 
per.-on  speaking- :  what  person,  tiien,  is  it?   (39.) 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  Jame.=!,  you  must  study,"  tlie  word  you  evidently  is  ap- 
olifd  to  .lames,  who  is  spoken  to  :  what  person,  then,  ought  you  to  be  ? 

123.  The  second  person. 

1.  To  be  omitted  in  parsing.  2.  Johmon's  is  governed  by  dictionary,  by 
ilule  1. 

3* 


18  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Q.  When  1  say,  "  He  (meaning  William)  should  leam/'  what  person  ought 
lie  to  he,  and  why  ? 

124.  The  third  person ;  because  it  stands  in  the 
place  of  a  noun  which  is  spoken  of. 

Q.  If  /  invarialily  stands  for  ihe  first  person,  you  for  the  second,  and  he 
for  the  third,  how  can  we  tell  the  different  persons  of  pronouns  ? 

125.  By  the  pronouns  themselves. 

Q.  What  have  these  pronouns  been  called  from  this  circumstance  ? 

126.  Personal  pronouns. 

[O^  I  will  now  o-ive  you  a  list  of  all  the  personal  pronouns,  wliich  you  must 
first  examine  carefully,  and  then  answer  such  questions  on  them  as  may  be 
asked  you. 

DECLENSION  OF  THE  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

FIRST    I'EllSON. 

127.  Shig.  Plur. 
Nom.  I.                                                     We. 

JPoss.  My  or  mine.  Ours  or  our. 

Obj.    Me.  Us. 

SECOND     PERSON. 

Sing.  Plur. 

Nom.  Thou  or  you.  Ye  or  you. 

Poss.  Thine  or  thy,  yours  or  your.  Yours  or  your. 

Ohj.    Thee  or  you.  You. 

THIRD    PERSON    MASCULINE. 

Sing.  Plur. 

Nom.  He.  They. 

Poss.  lii^.  Theirs  or  their. 

Obj.    Him.  Them. 

TiURD    I'ERSOW    FEMININE. 

Sing.  Plur. 

Nom.  She.  They. 

Poss.  Hers  or  her.  Theirs  or  their. 

Obj.    Her.  Thern. 

THIRD    RERSON    NEUTER. 

Sing.  Plur. 

Nom.  It.  They. 

Poss.  Its.  Theirs  or  their. 

Obj.    It.  Them. 

Q,.  Will  you  decline  1  in  both  numbers  ?  thou  or  you  ?  he  ?  she  ?  it  ? 

Q.  In  what  person,  number,  and  case  is  /.''  we?  7iiy  ?  mine?  our  ox  ours  7 
vie  ?  us  ?  llimi  ?  ye  ?  his  ?  they  ?  thcin  ? 

'        Q.  In  what  gender,  person,  number,  and  case  is  he  ?  she  ?  it  ?  his  ?  hers  ? 
her  ?  him  ? 

Q.  How  man}'  numbers  do  pronouns  appear  to  have,  and  what  are  they  ? 

128.  Two — the  singular  and  plural. 

Q.  Ilow  many  cases,  and  \ihat  are  they  ? 

129.  Three — the  nominative,  the  possessive,  and  the 
objective. 


i'llONOUNS  10 

Q.  How  many  persons  1 

130.  Three — the  first,  second,  and  third. 

Q.  How  many  guiulors  ? 

131.  Three — the  masculine,  feminine,  and  neuter. 

Q.  How  many  j)ronouns  are  there  in  till,  of  the  first  [)erson  f 
Q.  How  many  of  the  socoml^  and  how  many  of  llie  third  ? 
Q.  Tlie  pronouns  of  the  nomnuitive  case,  singular,  are  called  leading  pro- 
loiuis  :  how  many  of  those  are  there  ? 

133.  Five — /,  thoic  or  yoii,  he,  she,  it. 

Q.  Wiiv  are  not  the  possessive  and  objective  cases  of  the  singular  and 
plural  numbers,  also  the  nominatives  plural,  reckoned  in  the  number  of  the 
■cading  pronouns  ? 

134.  Because  they  are  all  considered  as  variations 
of  the  nominative  singular. 

Q.  To  which  of  the  pronouns  is  it  customary  to  apjily  gender? 

135.  To  the  third  person  singular,  he,  she,  it. 

Q.  Why  are  not  the  first  tutd  second  persons  each  made  always  to  repre- 
sent a  different  gender  ? 

13G.  The  first  aad  second  persons  being  always 
present,  their  genders  are  supposed  to  be  known. 

Q.  If,  as  we  have  seen,  pronouns  stand  for  nouns,  what  gender,  number, 
and  person  ought  they  to  have  ? 

137.  The  same  as  the  nouns  for  which  they  stand. 

Q.  What,  tljen,  may  be  considered  a  rule  for  the  agreement  of  the  pro- 

noiuis  1 

Pronouns  must  agree  loith  the  nouns  for  which 
they  stand,  in  gender,  number,  and  person 

QUESTIOMS  ON   PARSING. 
Q.  How  many  diflCcicnt  sorts  of  words  have  wc  now  foiuid,  and  wb.at  are 
they? 

]  38.  Four — the  Noun,  the  Article,  the  Adjective, 
and  the  Pronoun. 

Q.  The  word  yart,  you  know,  means  division ;  and  speech,  tire  power  of 
using  words,  or  language ;  what,  therefore,  shall  we  call  these  grand  di\'isioas 
of  words '? 

139.  Parts  of  Speech. 

Q.  When,  then,  I  Rjk  j'ou  what  part  of  speech  boy  is,  for  instance,  wlia4 
do  }ou  understand  me  lo  mean  ! 

140.  The  same  as  to  ask  me  whether  hoy  is  a  noun 
or  not. 

Q.  What  part  of  speech,  then,  is  Willican,  and  \v!iy  ?  (36.) 

1.  "He  v/ent  to  school." 

2.  "  She  went  to  her  task." 

3.  "  William  went  to  his  play." 

4.  "  Jolm  returned  from  his  school." 

5.  "  I  request  you  to  mind  your  studies." 

6.  "  The  book  was  mine,  but  now  it  is  yours." 

Q.  Will  you  name  the  pronouns  in  the  six  foregoing  examples  ? 
Q.  How  many  are  there  in  all  ? 

Q.  What  is  the  gender,  nimiber,  and  person  of  those  in  the  first  7  secoud  ? 
tliird?  fomth?  fifth?  sixth? 


20  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Q.  What  is  the  gender  of  his,  in  tiie  fourth  sentence?  why?  (137.)  Its 
number?  why?  (137.)     Its  person  ?  why?  (137.)     lis  case  ?  why?  (61.) 

Q.  VA'ill  you  name  the  nouns  in  the  tirst  sentence  ?  in  the  second  ?  tliird  ? 
fourth?  fifth".'  sixth? 


X.     OF  THE   VERB. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "James  strikes  William,"  which  word  tells  what  James 
does  1 

141.  Strikes. 

Q.  The  word  verb  means  word ;  and  as  the  words  in  all  sentences,  which 
tell  what  the  nouns  do,  are  the  principal  ones,  what  shall  such  words  be  called  ? 

142.  Verbs. 

Q.  If,  ui  the  phrase  "  William  strikes  James,''  we  leave  out  the  word 
strikes,  you  perceive  at  once  that  the  sensd  is  destroyed  :  what  reason,  then, 
can  you  give,  for  caHing  some  words  in  a  sentence  vo-bs,  and  others  b}  a  dif- 
ferent name  ? 

143.  The  words  which  we  call  verbs  are  the  most 
important. 

Q.  '•  William  studies  his  lesson."  Which  word  is  the  verb  here,  ana 
^yhyl 

144.  Stiidies,  because  it  tells  what  William  does. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "'  John  dances,"  which  word  is  the  verb,  and  why  ? 
Q.  When  I  sa}',  "James  strikes  John,"  which  word  shows  that  an  action 
is  performed  ? 

145.  Strikes. 

Q.  What  kind  of  a  verb,  then,  shall  we  call  stri?ces  ? 

140.   An  active  verb. 

Q.  What  kind  of  a  verb  is  walks,  m  this  sentence,  "John  walks,"  and 
why  .' 

147.  fVulJxs  is  an  active  verb,  because  it  expresses 
action. 

Q.  "  He  beat  William."  \\'hich  word  here  is  the  verb  ?  Is  William  ^.a 
agent  or  an  object  ? 

148.  An  object. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  The  child  walks,"  u-a/Ars,  it  is  true,  is  an  active  verb, 
nut  it  has  no  noun  after  it  for  an  oliject,  as  beat  has,  in  the  phrase  above;  nei- 
ther can  we  supply  one;  for  we  cannot  say,  "The  child  walks"  any  thing: 
wi.at,  therefore,  is  to  be  inferred  from  this  fact,  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  ac- 
tive verbs  ? 

149.  That  some  active  verbs  vi'ill  take  nouns  after 
them  for  objects,  and  others  will  not. 

Q.  We  will  I'le.xt  notice  this  diflerence.  The  term  transitive  meajis  pass- 
ivs;  over;  and  when  1  sav,  "William  whips  Charles,"  the  verb  whips  shows 
that  the  action  which  William  performs,  passes  nrer  to  Charles  as  ihe  object. 
What  kind  of  a  verb,  then,  shall  we  call  whips? 

150.  An  active-transitive  verb. 

Q.  Wh.al,  then,  is  an  active-transitive  verb  ? 

151.  It  is  one  that  either  has,  or  may  have,  an  ob- 
ject after  it. 

Q.  Walks,  we  found,  would  not  take  an  object  after  it ;  and,  as  intmiist- 
tivp.  means  not  passing  m-er,  what  shall  we  call  such  verbs  as  walks? 


vERus.  ai 

{52.  Active-intransitive  verbs. 

Q.  VVliat,  llici),  is  an  aclive-inlransitive  verb  J 

153.  An  active-intransitive  verb  is  one  that  expresses 
ac  (.ion,  but  will  not  take  an  object  after  it. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  lie  cats  it,"  '•  He  beats  liini,"  we  imnfiodiatdy  dcter- 
niiLC  that  hecUs  and  eats  arc  a<-ti\c-transili\e  verbs,  by  the  objects  after  them  i 
how,  tlicn,  n)a3'  transitive  ;uid  intransitive  verbs  be  dislingiiished  ? 

154.  When  we  can  place  him  or  it  after  any  active 
verb,  and  make  sense,  it  is  transitive ;  otherwise,  it  is 
intransitive. 

Q.  "James  remains  at  home — sleeps  at  liome — is  at  home."  Which 
words  are  the  verbs  here  ? 

155.  Remains,  sleeps,  and  is. 

Q.  These  verbs  do  not  imply  action,  like  strikes,  beats,  &c. ;  what  do  they 
unply  ? 

156.  Existence,  rest,  or  being,  in  a  certJiin  state. 

Q.  These  verbs,  and  others  of  similar  character,  have  been  called  7ie7Uer 
(signifying-  neither)  by  grammarians,  because  they  aro  neither  active  nor  pas- 
sive. On  a  future  occasion,  I  will  make  you  fully  acquainted  with  a  passive 
verb.  It  is  sufficient  for  our  present  purpose,  that  you  perceive  the  reason  of 
the  name  of  the  neuter  verb.     What  is  a  neuter  verb  ? 

157.  A  neuter  verb  is  one  that  simply  implies  being 
or  existence  in  a  certain  state. 

Q.  Will  you  inform  me  now,  in  general  terms,  what  is  a  correct  definition 
of  a  verb  ? 

158.  A  verb  is  a  word  which  signifies  action  or 

BEING. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "^  I  slnke,"  in  what  number  and  person  is  strike,  and  why  ? 

159.  Strike  is  of  the  first  person  singular,  because 
its  agent,  /,  is  of  this  person  and  number. 

Q.  Hence  you  may  perceive,  that  verbs,  in  themselves  cousideredjtlo  not 
have  persou  and  nuiiilier :  why,  then,  are  they  said  to  liave  lliese  properties  at 
all  7 

160.  On  account  of  the  connection  v/hich  they  have 
with  their  agents  or  nominatives. 

Q.  We  say,  "  I  write,"  and  "  He  writes" ;  hence  you  perceive  that  the 
endmg  of  the  verb  varies,  as  its  agent  or  nominative  varies  :  what,  then,  will 
be  the  rule  for  the  nominative  case  ? 

The  nomiiiative  case  governs  the  verb  in  nnmher 
mid  person. 

Q.  If  the  nominative  case  governs  the  verb  in  number  and  person,  in  what 
respect  must  the  verb  agree  wth  its  nominative  case  ? 

A  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  case  in 
number  and  person. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "James  beats  him,"  the  pronoun  him  is  the  object  of 
the  action  denoted  by  heats,  and  is,  therefore,  in  the  objective  case":  what 
then,  will  be  a  good  rule  for  the  objective  case  after  active  verbs  ? 

Active-transitive  verbs  govern  the  objective  case 


22  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Q.  T  will  no\  ^  „  on  the  diflerent  endings  of  tlie  verb  love,  in  its  different 
mimhers  and  persons.     Will  3'ou  repeat  them  '.' 

Singular.  Plural. 

161.  First  person,  I  love.  First  person,  We  love. 
Second  person,  You  love.  Second  person,  You  love. 
Third  person,    Heloves.       Third  person.    They  love. 

Q.  Will  you  repeat  the  variaiions  oi am? 

Singular.  Plural. 

162.  1  Ptrs.  I  am.  1  Pers.  We  are. 

2  Pers.  You  are.  9.  Pers.  You  are. 

3  Pers.  He  is.  3  Pers.  They  are. 

Q.  Will  you  repeat,  in  the  same  maimer,  the  variations  oihate  7  desire  ?  read 7 

EXERCISES  IN   PARSING. 

"  1  study  my  lesson." 

163.  /  is  a  PRONOUN,  a  wed  used  instead  of  a  noun — per- 
sonal ;  it  always  denotes  the  same  person,  (the  first) — first 
person  ;  it  denotes  the  speaker — singular  number  ;  it 
means  but  one — "  Nam.  J  " — made  in  the  nominative  case 
to  study,  according  to  ^ 

Rule  VI.  The  nominative  case  governs  the  verb  in  num- 
ber and  person. 

Study  is  a  verb  ;  it  expresses  action — transitive  ;  it  ad- 
mits an  object  after  it — "  1  Pers.  I  study'' — made  in  the 
first  person — singular  number,  because  its  nominative  1 
is,  with  which  it  agrees,  agreeably  to 

Rule  VII.  A  verb  must  agree  ivith  its  nominative  case  in 
number  and  person. 

My  is  a  pronoun,  a  word  used  for  a  noun — personal  ;  it 
always  represents  the  same  person — first  person  ;  it  repre- 
sents the  person  speaking — '^Nom..  I;  Poss.  my,  or  mine" — 
made  in  the  possessive  case — and  governed  by  the  noun 
lesson,  according  to 

Rule  I.  The  possessive  case  is  governed  by  the  following 
noun. 

Lesson  is  a  noun — common  ;  it  is  a  general  name — neu- 
ter gender  ;  it  is  neither  male  nor  female — third  person  ; 
It  is  spoken  of — singular  number;  it  means  but  one — and 
in  the  objective  case  ;  it  is  the  object  of  the  verb  study, 
and  governed  by  it,  according  to 

Rule  VIII.  Active-transitive  vej-bs  govern  the  objective 
case. 

exercises  tn   pausing  continued. 

Transitive  Verhs. 
•*  I  lament  iny  fate."  "  He  found  a  dollar." 

"  You  regard  your  friends."  "  She  attends  the  school." 

"  We  desire  your  improvement."        "  It  retards  the  work." 
"  We  love  our  children."  "  They  shun  vice." 

"  You  make  a  knife."  "  Ye  derive  comfort " 


VERBS.  23 

a. 

"  I  love  him."  "  Slic  forsook  you." 

"  I  lament  her."  "  Tlioy  annoy  me." 

"  You  assist  them."  «  We  took  it." 

"He  struck  her."  "  She  relieved  us." 

"  John  reads  his  hooky 
His  is  a  pronoun,  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun — fm-.r- 
SONAL  ;  it  uniformly  stands  for  the  same  person — MAscin.iNE 

GENDER,    TUIRD     I'KRSON,     SINCVULAR     NUMUKR,     becaUSe     the 

noun  John  is,  with  which  it  agrees,  agreeably  to 

Rule  V.  Pronouns  must  agree  ivith  fhr  nouns  for  which 

they  stand,  in  gender,  number,  and  person. 

"  Noni.  he;Poss.  his" — made  in  the  possessive  case — 

and  governed  by  the  noun  book,  according  to 

Rule  I.    The  possessive  case  is  governed  by  the  following 

noun. 

^y  The  remaining  words,  hook,  reads,  and  John,  are  parsed  as  befm-e. 
EXERCISES    IN     PARSING    CONTINUED. 
3. 
"  Mary  studies  her  lesson."         "  Virtue  rewards  its  followers." 
"The  girls  love  their  books."      "A  disobedient  son   gwieves  his 
"Good   children  mind   their  parents." 

parents."  "The  intemperate  man  loves  his 

"  Sin  deceives  its  votaries."  dram." 

JK/"  In  parsing  personal  pronouns,  wo  do  not  a;)ply  Rule  V.  unless  tlio  nouns  for 
which  they  stand  are  expressed. 

Intransitive  Verhs. 
4. 
"  I  walk."  "  You  smile."  "  John  swims." 

"  James  runs."  "  They  wink."  "  Birds  Hy." 

"  William  hops."  "  We  dance."  "  Lions  roar." 

JVeuter  Verbs. 
"  William  is  (1.)  discreet."  (2.)   "  John's  wife  is  fortunate." 
"  James  is  happy."  "  John's  brother  is  unhappy." 

"  He  was  studious."  "  The  eagle's  il  ight  was  suddeu,"" 

"  He  became  intemperate."        "  The  scholars  duty  is  plain." 
"  Thou  art  wise."  "  The  judge's  pay  is  sufficii?nt."" 


XI.     INDICATIVE  MOOD— TENSE. 

Q.  \Vhoii  .Tames  says,  "I  will  learn,"  he  evi.lcnlly  meaiis,  b\-  his  mamio;' 
of  speakinff,  to  express  his  intention  to  learn  ;  but  when  he  says,  -''f  ean  learn," 
what  does  Tie  mean  ?  '    '      - 

(1.)  Is  is  a  VKRB  ;  it  implies  t>eing — neuter  ;  it  is  neither  active  nor  pav 
sive,  but  expresses  beinff,  merely — "  1  prrs.  I  ain  ;  2  pent.  You  are  ;  3  pers.  He, 
or  William  is  " — made  in  Use  third  person,  singular,  because  William,  its 
nominative,  is,  and  agrees  with  William,  according-  to 

Rule  VII.  A  verb  must  a^ree  ivith  its  nominatire  case  in  number  and  person. 

(2.)  Discreet  belongs  to  William,  by  Rule  IV. 


S4  tNGLISII  GRAMMAR. 

165.  That  he  has  the  ability  to  learn. 

Q.  What  does  the  \vord  mood  mean  1 

16G.  Mood  means  maimer. 

Q.  What,  then,  does  the  mood  of  verbs  denote  ? 

167.  The  diflerent  manner  of  representing  actions 

Q,  What  does  the  word  indicative  mean  ? 

168.  Declaring  or  showing. 

Q.  When  I  say,  ■•  Wilham  has  studied,"  I  aeclare  some  fact  i  in  what 
mood,  then,  shall  we  class  has  studied? 

169.  In  the  mdicative  mood. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "Has  William  studied  1"  the  only  difference  between  this 
plirase  and  the  foregoing-  consists  in  a  change  in  the  order  of  the  words,  so  as 
to  show  that  a  question  is  asked  :  in  what  mood,  then,  shall  we  call  Ims  Wil- 
liam studied  ? 

170.  Indicative  mood. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  the  indicative  mood  used  for  ? 

171.  The  indicative  mood  is  used  for  asserting,  in- 
dicating or  declaring  a  tiling,  or  asking  a  question. 

Q.  In  wliat  mood  is  "  'I'liey  ilo  sing"  ?     Why  ?  (171.) 
Q.  What  does  the  w  ord  tense  mean  ?  ^ 

172.  Tense  means  time. 

Q.  What  does  present  mean  ? 

173.  Present  means  now. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  Tlic  bird  sings,"  I  mean  that  the  bird  sings  now  i  in 
what  tense,  then,  is  sings  ? 

174.  In  the  present  tense. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  the  present  tense  used  for  7 

175.  The  present  tense  is  used  to  express  what  is 
now  taking  place. 

Q.  In  what  tense  is  "  The  dog  runs"  ?     Why  ?  (175.) 
Q.  "  James  wrote."     "  James  has  written."    These  phrases  denote  what 
is  past :  in  what  tense  are  they  ? 

176.  In  the  past  tense. 

Q.  Wiiat  docs  the  word  fiUnre  mean  ;  as,  "  At  some  future  time"  1 

177.  Future  means  yet  to  come. 

Q.  In  what  tense  arc  the  phrases,  "  I  will  come,"  "  I  shall  have  come"  ? 

178.  In  the  future  tense. 

Q.  How  many  grand  divisions  of  time  do  there  appear  to  be,  and  what 
are  they  ? 

170.  Three — the  present,  past,  and  future. 

Q.  ^V'hcn  I  say,  "  John  wrote/'  is  the  action  here  spoken  of  past  and 
finished  1 

ISO.  It  is. 

Q.  WHial  docs  imperfect  mean  1 

181.  Unfinished,  or  incomplete. 

Q.  "John  was  writing  wiien   I  saw  him."     This  denotes  an  artioE   i. 
finished   in   past   time,  and   corresponds  with  what   is   usually  denominated   ^* 
Latin  the  imperfect  tense  :  hence  the  origin  of  tlie  name  sefected  bj'  Engirs^ 
grammarians  to  denote  action  pasi  and  ilnislicd  ;  a  term  not   all  significant  of 
an  action  finished  in  past  ti;ne  :  w!uU,  tiien,  does  the  imperfect  tense  express  ? 

1 82.  The  imperfect  tense  expresses  whal  took  place 
in  past  time,  however  distant. 

Q..  "  I'eter  wrote  yesterday,  ajid  has  written  to-day        Here  both  acts  of 


VERBS.  J5 

writing  arc  past  and  finished  5  but  which  has  more  immediate  reference  to  the 
present  time  ? 

183.  Has  written. 

Q.  To  disting-iiisli  tiiis  tense  from  the  imperfect,  grammarians  have  called 
it  the  perfect  tense  :  what,  then,  will  liie  perlect  tense  express  ? 

184.  The  perfect  tejiso  expresses  what  has  taken 
place,  and  also  conveys  an  allusion  to  the  present 
time. 

Q.  "James  had  read  liefore  I  wrote."  Here,  holh  acts  are  past  and 
finished  ;  but  w  hich  look  place  first  1 

185.  The  act  of  reading. 

Q.  Wliat  does  the  word  pluperfect  mean  1 

186.  More  than  the  perfect. 

Q.  Wlial  tense,  tiien,  shall  we  call  "James  had  read"? 

187.  The  pluperfect  tense. 

Q.  \Vliat,  then,  does  the  pluperfect  tcr.sc  express  ? 

188.  The  pluperfect  tense  e.\j)resses  wliat  had  taken 
place  at  or  before  some  past  time  mentioned. 

Q.  "  John  will  come."  This,  you  knr)w,  was  calleti  the  future  tense;  can 
you  tell  me  why  1 

189.  Because  it  implies  time  to  come. 

Q.  What,  then,  does  the  future  louse  express  ? 

190.  The  future  tense  expresses  what  will  tnke 
place  hereafter. 

Q.  "  I  shall  have  learned  my  lesson  by  noon."  Here,  an  action  is  to  take 
place  at  a  future  time  specified  or  meniioiied  ;  and  since  we  alrcad}'  have  one 
future  tense,  we  will  call  that  the  first,  and  this  the  second  future  tense :  wliat, 
then,  will  the  second  fiiiure  lease  express  ? 

191.  The  second  future  expresses  what  will  have 
taken  place  at  or  before  some  future  time  mentioned. 

Q.  What  docs  sy?wp.'iis  mean  ? 

192.  A  concise  and  general  view. 

Q.  I  will  now  present  you  with  a  synopsis  of  all  ihe  different  tenses,  illus 
trated  by  the  verb  leant :  will  you  repeat  it  ? 

SYNOPSIS. 

193.  Prcs.  tense,  I  learn,  or  do  learn. 

Imp.  tense,  I  learned,  or  did  learn. 

Per/,  tense,  1  have  learned. 

Plup.  tense,  I  bad  learned. 

1st  Fat.  tense,  I  shall  or  v/ill  learn. 

2d  Fid.  tense,  I  shall  have  learned. 

[HP  You  shall  next  have  the  difl'erent  variations  of  the  foregoing  verb,  in 
each  toiise  of  the  indicative  mood  :  iher-e  1  wish  you  to  study  very  carefully 
that  you  may  be  able  to  a:iswer  the  questions  which  will  then  be  asked  you. 

194.  To  learn. 

INDULVTTVE  MOOD. 
I'RF.SENT    TENSR. 
Singular.     .  Plural. 

1  Pers.  I  learn.  1  Pers.  We  learn. 

2  Pers.  You  learn.  2  Pers.  You  learn. 
8  Pers.  Hbj  she,  or  it  learns.  3  Pers.  They  learn. 


26 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


When  we  wish  to  express  energy  or  positiveness,  t.ius— ' 


Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

I  do  learn. 

] .  We  do  learn. 

2. 

You  do  learn. 

2.  You  do  learn. 

3. 

He  does  learn. 

3.  They  do  learn. 

IMPERFECT    TENSE. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

I  learned. 

].  We  learned. 

2. 

You  learned. 

2.  You  learned. 

3. 

He  learned. 

3.  They  learned. 

OR, 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

I  did  learn. 

1.  We  did  learn. 

2. 

You  did  learn. 

2.  You  did  learn. 

3. 

He  did  learn. 

3.  They  did  learn 

PERFECT     TENSE. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

I  have  learned. 

^ .  We  have  learned. 

2. 

You  have  learned. 

2.  You  have  learned. 

3. 

He  has  learned. 

3.  They  have  learned 

PLUPERFECT    TENSE. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

I  had  learned. 

1.  We  had  learned. 

2. 

You  had  learned. 

2.  You  had  learned. 

3. 

He  had  learned. 

3.  They  had  learned. 

FIRST 

FUTURE     TENSE. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

1. 

I  shall  or  will  learn. 

1 .  We  shall  or  will  learn. 

2. 

You  shall  or  will  1 

earn. 

2.  You  shall  or  will  learn. 

3. 

He  shall  or  will  le; 

arn. 

3.  They  shall  or  will  learn 

SECOND 

FUTURE     TENSE. 

Sinrrular. 

Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  learned.  1.  We  shall  have  learned. 

2.  You  will  have  learned.  2.  You  will  have  learned. 

3.  He  will  have  learned.  3.  They  will  have  learned. 

*,*  For  the  benefit  of  those  who  choose  to  retain  the  second  person  singu 
lar,  as  given  in  former  treatises,  the  following  synopsis  is  inserted. 

SYNOPSIS. 
195.  2rf  Per.^.  Sing.  Pres.       Tliou  learncst,  or  dost  learn. 
2d  Pers-  Sing.  Imp.        Thou  learntulst,  or  didst  learn. 
2d  Pers-  Sing.  Per/.       Thou  hast  learned. 
2d  Pt-rs.  Sing.  Pliip.      Tliou  hadst  learned. 
2d  Pers-  Sing.  ]st  Fnl.  Thou  shalt  or  M-ilt  learn. 
2d  Pers-  Sin!>:  2d  Fid.    Thou  wilt  have  learned. 


Q.  In  what  mood  is  "1  le.irn"  .'     Wliy  ?  (171.) 
(17.5.)     In  what  mood  and  tense  is  "Me  learns'"  i 
learn"?     "I  have  learned''?     "I  had  learned''? 
''  I  shall  have  learned''  ? 

Q.  In  what    person   and   nninhcr  is   "  I  learn" 
Icarir"?     "  They  had  learned"  ?     "  He  shall  learn" 

Q.  What  does  the  word  auxiliary  mojui  ? 

19G.  Auxiliary  means  helping. 


In  what  tense  ? 
"  We  learn"  ? 


Why? 
"  I  did 


'  I  shall  or  will  learn"  1 


'You  learn"?    "We 
'  We  had  learned"  ? 


VERBS.  37 

Q.  In  tlie  phrase,  "  1  will  sing,"  jc?//,  you  perceive,  is  used  to  iiolp 
form  the  future  tense  of  siux :  will  is,  therefore,  ealled  an  auxiliary  verl),  and 
the  veil)  sin:^  is  reckoned  llic  principal  verb  ;  what,  then,  are  auxiliary  verbs  '/ 

197.  Aiixiliary  verbs  are  those  by  the  help  otwiiich 
are  formed  the  different  tenses,  moods,  &,c.  of  the 
principal  verbs. 

Q.  The  auxiliary  vcrlis  are  not  unfre(|iienlly  denominated  the  signs  of  the' 
tenses,  because  each  tense  has,  in  general,  an  auxiliary  peculhir  to  itself' 
what,  then,  is  the  sign  of  the  second  future  .' 

19S.   Shall  or  will  have. 

Q.  What  is  the  siu,ii  of  the  first  future  ? 

199.  Shall  ov  ivlll. 

Q.  What  is  the  sign  of  the  ])lupcrfect  ? 

200.  Had. 

Q.  What  is  the  sign  of  the  perfect  ? 

201.  Have. 

Q.  What  is  the  sign  of  the  imperfect  ? 

202.  Did. 

Q.  We  can  say,  "  I  did  strike  yesterday,"  or,  "  I  struck  yesterday"?  how 
Ihcu,  can  we  tell  when  a  verb  is  in  the  imperfect  tense  without  the  sign  did  7 

203.  if  we  can  place  yesterday  after  the  verb,  and 
make  sense,  it  is  in  the  imperfect  tense. 

Q.  What  is  tlie  sign  of  the  present  tense? 

204.  Do,  or  the  fust  form  of  the  verb. 

Q.  From  the  foregoing,  how  many  lenses  does  the  indicative  mood  appear 
to  have,  and  what  are  they  ? 

205.  Six — the  present,  the  imperfect,  the  perfect, 
the  pluperfect,  the  first  and  second  future  tenses. 

EXERCISES  IN   PARSING. 

"  They  have  arrived.''^ 

20G.  Thei/  is  a  pronoun,  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun — 
personal;  it  always  represents  the  same  person — third 
PERSON ;  it  denotes  the  persons  spoken  of — plural  ;  it 
means  more  than  one — "  Nom.  he  ;  J-'oss.  his ;  Ohj.  him. 
Plural.  Nom.  they" — made  in  the  nominative  case  to 
have  arrived,  accorduig  to 

Rule  VI.    T'hc  nominative  case  governs  the  verb. 

Have  arrived  is  a  verb,  a  word  that  imphes  action  or 
being — active  ;  it  implies  action — intransitive  ;  it  does 
not  admit  of  an  object — indicative  mood  ;  it  simply  indi- 
cates or  declares  a  thing — perfect  tense  ;  it  expresses 
what  has  just  taken  place — "  1.  I  have  arrived  ;  2.  You 
have  arrived  ;  3.  lie  has  arrived.  Plural,  1.  We  have  ar- 
rived ;  2.  You  have  arrived  ;  3.  They  have  arrived" — made 
in  the  third  person  plural,  because  its  nominative  the?/  is, 
and  agrees  with  it,  according  to 

Rule  VII.  A  verb  must  agree  tvith  its  nominative  ease  in 
number  and  person. 


28  ENGLISH   QRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES    IN    PARSING    CONTINUED. 
1. 

"  They  had  come."  "  The  sun  has  risen." 

"  We  did  go."  "  Dogs  will  fight." 

"  The  bird  will  return."  "Lions  will  roar." 

2. 
"  James  loves  William."  "  Columbus  discovered  America." 

"Susan  beats  him."  "Piety  promotes  our  happiness." 

"  I  have  beaten  them."  "  He  will  learn  his  lesson." 

"She  had  beaten  us."  "John  did  make  great  progress." 

"  You  shall  assist  him."  "  They  do  study  their  lessons.'*^  , 

"  It  did  disturb  me."  "  Boys  love  sport." 

3. 
"  Do  I  disturb  you  ?"  "  Shall   I   expect  your  assist- 

"  Did  they  learn  their  lessons  ?"  ance  ?" 

"  Have  they  recited  ?"  "  Will  a  virtuous  citizeti  commit 

"  Does  the  instructer  teach  us  ?"  such  (1.)  acts  ?" 

"  Had  he  dismissed  him  ?"  "  Have  you  found  your  knife  ?" 


XII.     POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Q.  What  does  "  He  may  write"  imply  ? 

207.  Permission  or  liberty  to  write. 

Q.  What  does  "  He  must  write"  imply  1 

208.  Necessity  of  writing. 

Q.  What  does  "  He  can  write"  imply  ? 

209.  Power  or  ability  to  write. 

Q.  Wliat  does  "  He  should  write"  imply  ? 

210.  Duty  or  obligation  to  write. 

Q.  What  does  "  He  would  write"  imply  ? 

211.  Will  or  inclination  to  write. 

Q.  What  does  the  word  potential  meaii  ? 

212.  Able,  or  poiverful. 

Q.  In  what  mood,  then,  do  grammarians  reckon  can  learn,  may  write,  and 
also  must  icrite,  should  write,  &c.  ? 

213.  In  the  potential  mood. 

Q.  WTiy  are  all  these  dilTerent  forms  of  representing  actions  considered  to 
be  in  the  potential  mood,  a  name,  as  we  have  seen,  peculiar  only  to  that  form 
of  the  verb  which  implies  power  ? 

214.  To  prevent  multiplying  moods  to  a  great  and 
almost  numberless  extent. 

Q.  What,  then,  does  the  potential  mood  imply  ? 

215.  The  potential  mood  implies  possibility,  liberty, 
power,  will,  obligation,  or  necessity. 

Q.  What  are  the  signs  of  this  mood  ? 

216.  May,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  and  should. 

Q.  ^Vhat  does  the  word  conjiigatian  mean  ? 
(1.)  Adjective. 


Plvnil. 

1.   We  uiiii-ht,    could, 

would, 

OT 

should  li'iini. 

2.   Y(}u   might,  could, 

would, 

or 

should  Icarn. 

3.  They  ini^rht,  could, 

would, 

or 

sliould  learn. 

VERBS.  39 

217.  Uniting,  combining,  or  joining  together. 

Q.  Vou  recojieot  ihat,  in  varying  ilic  vcrl>.  we  joined  the  pronouas  with  it; 
hence  this  exercise  is  called  coiijugatwu  :  wliat,  tlien,  do  you  understand  hy 
the  conjugation  of  a  verb  ? 

218.  The  conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  regular  com- 
bination and  arrangement  of"  its  several  moods,  tenses, 
numbers  and  persons. 

219.     Conjugation  of  the  verb  Learn. 

POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

PRESENT    TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may,  can,  or  must  learn.  1.  Wc  may,  can,  or  must  learn. 

2.  You  may,  can,  or  must  learn.       2.  You  may,  can,  or  must  learn. 

3.  He  may,  can,  or  most  learu.        3.  They  may,  can,  or  must  learn. 

IMPERFECT     TENSE. 

Sin.irular. 

1.  I    might,    could,    would,    or 

should  learn. 

2.  You  niiulit,  could,  would,  or 

should  learn. 

3.  He    miijlit,    could,  would,  or 

should  learn. 

PE15FECT     TENSJ;. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  1    may,  can,    or  must    have       1.  We  in;iy,  can,  or    iinist  have 

learned.  learned. 

2.  You  may,  can,  or  mu.st  have      2    You  may,  can,   or  must  have 

learned.  learned. 

3.  He  may,    can,  or  must  have      3.  'I'hoy  may,  can,  ur  must  have 

learned.  learned. 

P  I,  I  j  1 '  E  U  r  ECV     T  J'.  i\  S  E . 
Slngiihir.  Plural. 

1.  I    might,    could,     would,    or       1.   AVc    miirhl,  could,  would,    or 

should  have  learned.  should  have  lc;irned. 

2.  You  might,  could,  would,  or      2.   You   might,,  could,    would,   or 

should  luive  learned.  should   have  learned. 

3.  He    might,  cotild,  would,    or      3.  Tiii.^y  niighl ,  could,  would,  or 

should  have  learned.  should  have  learned. 

Synopsis  of  the  Second  Person  Singular,  with  I'liou. 

•220. 
Pres.  Thou  m:iyst,  canst,  or  must  learn. 
Imp.    Thou  mio-htst,  couldst,  wor.iust,  or  slioaldst  learn. 
Perf.  Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must  have  learned. 
Plup.  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  or  shouldst  have  learned. 

Q.  In  what  mood  is  "  I  may  learn''  ?  M'liy  1  (215.) 

Q.  Will  you  repeal  llie  synopsis  with  Z.'  ihna?  Lei  ii-e?  yel  ifou?  they? 

Q.  In  what  mood,  tense,  number  aiid  person,  is  "  I  can  learn"  ?  "  You 
may  learn"?  "You  might  assist"?  "They  could  have  learned"?  "He 
aiust  study"  ? 

Q.  In  what  mood  and  tense  is  "  I  have  learned"  ?  "  He  shall  run"  ?  "Wil- 
liam did  sing"  ? 

Q.  Will  you  conjugate  learn  \n  the  present  tense,  potential  mood  7     Wm 

3  * 


80  ENGLISH  GliAMMAll. 

3'ou  coiijugatft  love  m  the  same  mood,  antl  imperfect  tense  ?     Stnke,  in  the 
perfect  tense  ?     Come,  in  the  pluperfect  tense  ? 
Q.  How  many  tenses  has  tlie  potential  mood  ? 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
"  He  may  return.^^ 

221.  He  is  a  pronoun,  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun — 
PERSONAL  ;  it  invariably  represents  the  same  person — mascu- 
line oKNOEn;  it  represents  a  male — tuird  person;  it  de- 
notes the  person  spoken  of — singular  number;  it  implies 
but  one — and  in  the  nominative  case  ;  it  denotes  the  agent — 
"  Norn.  Zfc" — nominative  case  to  may  return,  by 

Rule  VI.    The  nominative  case  governs  the  ve^'b. 

3Iay  retwii  is  a  verr  ;  it  implies  action  or  being — ac- 
tive ;  it  implies  action — intransitive  ;  it  does  not  admit 
an  object  after  it — potential  mood  ;  it  implies  possibility, 
liberty,  &c. — present  tense;  it  denotes  what  may  be 
nou' — "  1.  I  may  or  can  return  ;  2.  You  may  or  can  return ; 
8.  He  may  or  can  return" — made  in  the  third  person,  sin- 
gular, because  its  nominative  he  is,  with  which  it  agrees, 
according  to 

Rule  VII.  A  verb  must  agree  toith  its  nominative  casein 
number  and  person. 

EXERCISES    IN    PARSING    CONTINUED. 
]. 

"He  may  come,"  "Boys  may  learn  arithmetic." 

"lie  might  retire."  "The  wind  may  have  shaken 
".lohii  can  assist  me."  the  trees." 

"William   must   obey   his   in-  "  The  lady  could  have  procured 

structcr."  her  fan." 

"  We  may  have  erred."  "James  may  catch  the  thief." 

"  John's  father  would  go."  "  They  might  learn." 

9. 

"  I  do  rejoice."  "  The  committee  will  visit  the 
"  We  do  learn."  school." 

"John  will  resume  his  task."  "An   idle   boy    will  find    pov- 
"An   industrious   boy   will  be  efty." 

rich." 

XIII.     CONJUGATION    OF  THE   NEUTER    VERB 

To  be. 

222.  Wiicn  I  say,  "  I  am  at  liome,"'  you  know  that  am  is  a  verb,  because 
it  implies  being  or  existence;  aiid  since  to  be  means  to  exist,  the  verb  am  lias 
been  called  the  verb  to  be. 

223.     INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT    TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  am.  1-  We  are. 

2.  You  are.  2.  You  are. 

3.  Ho  is.  3.  They  are. 


VEllHa.  31 

IMPERFECT    TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  was.  1.  Wc  were. 

2.  You  were.  2.  You  were. 

3.  He  was.  3.  They  were. 

PERI-'EOT    TliNSE. 

Singular  Plural. 

1.  I  have  been.  1.  We  have  been. 

2.  You  have  been.  2.  You  liave  been. 

3.  He  has  been.  3.  They  have  been. 

PLUPERFECT    TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  1  had  been.  1.  We  had  been. 

2.  You  had  been.  2.  You  had  been. 

3.  He  had  been.  '  3.  They  had  been. 

FIRST  FUTURE     TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  bo.  1.  We  shall  or  will  be. 

2.  You  shall  or  will  be.  2.  You  siuill  or  will  be. 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be.  3.  They  shall  or  will  be. 

SECOND  FUTURE     TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  been.  1.  We  shall  have  been. 

2.  You  will  have  been.  2.  You  will  have  been. 

3.  He  will  have   been.  3.  They  will  have  been. 

POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

PRESENT     TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may,  can,  or  must  be.  1.  We  maj^,  can,  or  must  be. 

2.  You  may,  can,  or  must  be.  2.  You  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

3.  He  may,  can,  or  must  be.  3.  Thoy  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

IMPERFECT     TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I    might,    could,    would,    or      I.  We    might,    could,    would,    or 

should  be.  should  be. 

2.  You  might,  could,  would,  or      2.   You   mioht,   could,  would,    ot 

should  be.  should  be. 

3.  He  mif^ht,  could,    would,    or      3.  They  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  be.  should  be. 

PERFECT     TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  ifiay,  can,  or  must  have  been.       1.  V»^e   may,    can,   or   nmst  havff 

2.  You   may,  can,  or  must  have  been. 

been.  2.  You   may,  can,  or  must  have 

3.  He   rftay,  can,   or   must  have  been. 

been.  3.  They  may,   can,  or  must  have 

been. 
PLUPERFECT     TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should      1.  We    might,   could,   would,    or 

have  been.  should  have  been. 

2.  You   miglit,  could,  would,  or      2.  You   might,   could,  would,  or 

should  have  been.  should  have  been. 

3.  He   might,   could,   would,  or      3.  They  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  have  been.  should  have  been. 


^  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

224.     Synopsis  of  the  Sdconcl  Person  Singular  with  Thou. 

INDICATIVE   MOOD.  POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

Pres.  Thou  art.  Pres.  Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must  be. 

hnp.    Thou  wast.  Imp.    TJiou  uiightst,  couldst,  wouldst, 

Perf.  Thou  hast  been.  or  shouldst  be. 

Plup.  Thou  hadst  been.  Perf.  Thou  mayst,    canst,    or    must 

1  Fut.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been. 

be.  Plup.  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst, 

2  Fut,  Thou    wilt    have  or  shouldst  have  been. 

been. 


XIV.     QUESTIONS  ON   THE  FOREGOING  CONJUGATION. 

4^.  Why  is  am  a  verb  ?  (138.)  What  is  it  sometimes  called  ?  (222.)  Why 
is  it  so  called  1  (222.) 

Q.  Will  you  give  the  spiopsis  of  tlie  verb  to  be  wilh  /  througli  the  iiidica 
live  mood  ? 

Q.  Will  you  conjugate  a?ii  in  thf;  present  indicative  ?  Imperfect  ?  Per- 
fect'.'  Pluperfect?  1  Future  .'  2  Future  ?  Present  potential  ?  Imperfect? 
Perfect  ?     Pluperfect  1 

Q.  In  what  mood,  tense,  nuni!)cr  and  person  is  "  I  am"  ?  "  Am  1?"  "  You 
were"  ?  •'  I  have  been"  ?  "  Have  30U  been  J"  "  He  may  o}-  can  be"  ?  •'  We 
should  be"  ?  "  He  ma}' liave  been"  ?  '•' They  should  have  been"  ?  "Thou 
shouldst  have  been"  ?     "  Thou  mayst  be"  .' 

Q.  Will  j'ou  repeat  the  synopsis  with  thou  ? 

EXERCISES  IN    PARSING. 

"  The  girls  loere  industrious." 

225.  Were  is  a  vekk  ;  it  implies  action  or  being — nku- 
TER ;  it  is  neither  active  nor  passive,  expressing  simply  be- 
ing— indicative  mood  ;  it  simply  indicates  or  declares  a 
thing — IMPERFECT  tense;  it  expresses  past  time — "  1.  I 
vi^as;  2.  You  were;  3.  He  was.  Plur.  I.  We  were; 
2.  You  were;  3.  They  were,  or  girls  were" — made  in  the 
THIRD  PERSON  PLURAL,  becausc  its  nominative  girls  is,  with 
which  it  agrees,  agreeably  to 

Rule  VII.  A  verb  rnust  agree  with  its  nominative  case  in 
number  and  person. 

Industrious  is  an  adjective,  a  word  joined  with  a  noun 
to  describe  it — "  industrious,  more  industrious,  most  industri- 
ous"— in  the  positive  decree  ;  it  describes,  without  any 
comparison — and  belongs  to  the  noun  girls,  according  to 

Rule  IV.  Adjectives  belong  to  the  nonns  rchich  they  de- 
scribe. 

inr  For  the  and  girls,  apply  Rui.ks  HI.  ajid  VI. 

EXERCISES    IN     PARSING    CONTINUED. 

"  William  is  attentive."  "  Am  I  young  ?" 

"John  IS  studious."  "Was  I  wrong  ?" 

"  We  are  jealous."  "  Have  we  been  wicked  ?" 

Thou  art  dutiful."  "  Were  they  penitent  ?" 


AUVERlirf.  Sd 

"  Mary  has  been  intelligent."  "  Washington  was  patriotic." 

''  The  boys  will  Iiavc  been  du-  "  Columbus  was  enterprising." 

tiful."  "  My  wile's  mother  is  sick." 
"  Their  estate  was  small." 


XV.     OF  THE  ADVERB. 

Q.  Wlicii  1  sa}',  "The  l>!r(l  flies  swiftly,"  I  do  not  mcun  by  sioiftltj  to  de- 
scribe I'ird :  what  does  swiftly  describe  ? 

220.  The  manner  of  flying. 

Q.  'I'o  what  part  of  speech  is  swiftly  '^on\e<\  in  the  phrase,  "  Tlie  bird  flies 
swiftly" '] 

227.  To  the  vefb  jiies. 

Q.  Wlint  does  the  word  adverb  signify  ? 

228.  Joined  to  a  verb. 

Q.  What,  then,  siiall  we  call  all  such  words  as  swiftly  ? 

229.  Adverbs. 

Q.  "  John  runs  very  swiftly."  Which  word  here  describes  or  shows  how 
swiftly  Joini  runs  ? 

230.  Very. 

Q.  What  is  the  word  very  called,  and  all  such  words  as  qualify  or  describe 
adverbs  ? 

231.  Adverbs. 

Q.  "  Industrious,  more  industrious,  most  industrious."  What  are  more 
and  most  called  here,  and  why  ? 

232.  Adverbs,  because  they  describe  or  qualify  ad- 
jectives. 

Q.  From  the  foregoing  particulars,  what  appears  to  be  a  proper  definition 
of  adverbs  ? 

233.  Adverbs  are  words  joined  to  verbs,  adjectives, 
and  other  adverbs,  to  qualify  or  describe  them. 

Q.  "  John  visits  me  often,  but  Thomas  oftener."  In  this  example,  we  see 
that  adverbs  may  be  compared  :  will  you,  therefore,  compare  soon  ? 

234.  "  Soon,  sooner,  soonest." 

Q.  Will  you  compare  wisely  1 

235.  "  Wisely,  more  wisely,  most  wisely." 

Q.  How  do  adverbs  ending  in  ly  appear  to  be  compared  ? 

236.  By  the  adverbs  more  and  moni. 

Q.  Will  you  in  this  manner  compare  admirably  ?  foolishly  ? 

Q.  Many  adverbs  are  compared  like  adjectives  of  one  syllable,  as  soon 
above  ;  but  there  is  a  very  considerable  number,  the  comparison  of  which  is 
not  regulated  by  any  general  rule.  The  following  list  embraces  adverbs  va- 
riously compared  :  will  you  repeat  the  comparative  and  superlative  of  each,  as 
I  name  the  positive  1 

237.  Positive.  Comparative.  Superlatii^e. 

Often,  oftener,       .  oftenest. 

Much,  more,  most. 

Well,  better,  best. 

Soon,  sooner,  soonest. 

Justly,  more  justly,  most  justly. 

Wisely,  more  wisely,  most  wisely. 

Justly,  less  justly  least  justly. 

Badlv  or  ill,  worse,  worst. 


34  ENGLISH   GRAIMMAR. 

238.  JVofe.— Ailverlis,  tliousli  very  nuiiii-roiis,  may  nevertheless  be  reduced  to  a  few 
classes.  V'lHi  will  now  read  with  aiieiition  the  following  list,  anil  I  will  then  aikyou 
some  questioiis  rfspecting  each  ohiss. 

1.  Oi  number:  as,   •  Once,  twice,  thrice,"  &c. 

2.  OTiitiUr:  ai^,  "  First,  secondly,  thirdly,  fourthly,  fifthly,  lastly,  finally,"  &.C. 

3.  Of  place:  as,  "  Here,  there,  w'hore,  elsewhere,  anywhere, somewhere,  nowhere, 
herein,  whither,  hither,  thither,  upward,  downward,  forward,  backward,  whence, 
hence,  thence,  whithersoever,"  &c. 

4.  Of  time. 

Oi  time  iirejsent :  as,  "  Now,  to-dav,"  &c. 

Oi:  time  past:  as,  "  Already,  before,  lately,  yesterday,  heretofore,  hitherto,  long 
since,  long  ago,"  dtc. 

Of  time  Ui  come  :  as,  "  To-morrow,  not  yet,  hereafter,  henceforth ,  henceforward, 
by  and  by,  instantly,  presently,  immediately,  struightways,"  &c. 

Of  time  indefinite:  aa,  "  Oft,  often,  ofttinies,  oftentimes,  sometimes,  soon,  seldom, 
daily,  weekly,  monthly,  yearly,  always,  when,  then,  ever,  never,  again,"  &c. 

5.  Of  qiwiitity  :  as,  "Much,  little,  sufficiently,  how  much,  how  great,  enough, 
abundantly,"  &c. 

6.  Of  'wniuier  or  qiialily :  as,  "  Wisely,  foolishly,  justly,  unjustly,  quickly,  slowly," 
&c.  Adverbs  of  (|nality  are  tlie  most  numerous  kind  ;  and  they  are  generally  formed 
by  adding  the  termination  bj  to  an  adjective  or  participle,  or  changing  le  into  ly  :  ai, 
"  Bad,  badly  ;  clieeiful,  cheerfully  ;  able,  ably  ;  admirable,  admirably."     , 

7.  Oi'il":a:t:  lis,"  {"erhaps,  peradventure,  possibly,  perchance." 

8.  { ii  ■  .  ;'(i.,/.  as,  "  Verily,  truly,  undoubtedly,  doubtless,  certainly,  yea,  yes, 
surely,  n.  i  ■    i.  <•  •■■  :lv,"  &.C. 

9.  ( li'  ( .  .    ;.'■/.  fis:,  "  Nay,  no,  not,  by  no  means,  not  at  all,  in  no  wise,"  &c. 

10.  OC  itiii/rv'iniiua:  ms,  "  How,  wliy,  wherefore,  whether,"  &c. 

11.  Of  cu7:ipartsoii:  as,  "  Mmo,  most,  better,  best,  worse,  worst,  less,  least,  very 
almost,  little,  alike,"  &c. 

When  a  preposition  sufiers  no  change,  but  becomes  an  adverb  merely  by  its  appli 
cation:  as  when  we  say,  "  He  rides  about;"  "He  was  near  falling;"  "  But  do  not 
ofler  lay  the  blame  on  me." 

There  are  also  some  adverbs,  which  are  composed  of  nouns,  and  the  letter  a  used 
instead  of  ut,  on,  &.c.  :  as,  "  Aside,  athirst,  afoot,  ahead,  asleep,  aboard,  ashore,  abed, 
aground,  atloat." 

Q.  Will  you  name  tv.o  adverbs  of  manher  ?  two  of  order  ?  two  of  place  1 
two  of  lime  [irt'seiit  .'  two  of  time  past  ?  two  of  lime  lo  come  ?  two  of  time 
mdefiuile  .'.'  Iv.  o  of  quanlily  .'  two  of  mauticr  or  quality  1  two  of  doubt  ?  two 
of  affirmation  .'  two  of  uegatiou  1  two  of  interrogation  ?  two  of  comparison  ? 

Q.  Adjectives  describe  as  well  as  adverbs  :  how,  then,  can  you  tell  one 
from  ihe  oilier  .' 

239.  Adjcc lives  describe  nouns,  but  adverbs  describe 
or  qualiiy  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 

Q.  Tliis  tad  .should  be  romenibereit  ;  you  shall,  therefore,  have  it  in  the 
form  of  a  rule  :  will  yoti  repeal  it  ? 

Adverbs    (jmdify   rerbs,     adjectives,    and    other 
adverbs. 

Q.  From  bad  we  lorn!  the  adverb  bat^i'ij  :  how,  then,  may  a  large  class  of 
adverbs  be  formed  1 

240.  By  adding  ly  to  adjectives. 

Q.  Will  you  ill  this  niaiiner  I'orm  an  adverb  from  irise  ?  from  great  ?  from 
sinful  f 

EXERCISES  IN   PARSING. 

"  The  bird  sings  sweetly.'''' 

241.  Sweetly  is  an  adverb,  a  word  used  to  qualify  a  verb, 
■adjective,  or  other  adverb  ;  \n  this  example  it  qualifies  the 
verb  sings,  agreeably  to 

Rule  IX.  Adverbs  qualify  verbs,  adjectives^  and  other 
adverbs. 

Sings,  bird  and  Ihe  arc  parsed  as  before. 


PREPOSITIONS. 


35 


EXERCISES    IN     PARSING    CONTINUED. 

Ailverhs  qimliftiing  verbs. 
"  The  soldiers  marched  slowly."     "  They  will  return  soon." 
"The  girls  sing  delightfully."       "The  hoys  write  admirably." 
"  Henry  improves  rapidly."  "  Susan  dances  elegantly." 

Adverbs  qualifying  adjectives. 
"  He  was  very  attentive."  "  James  is  more  studious." 

"  John  is  quite  busy."  "  Walter  is  most  studious." 

"  William  is  really  studious."        "  Ellen  is  less  happy." 

Adverbs  qualifying  verbs  and  other  adverbs. 
"  You     learn     grammar     very     "  James  writes  most  elegantly." 
well."  "  I  will  assist  you  most  cheer- 

"  The  boys  write  too  fast."  fully." 

"  He  will  come  much  oftener." 

Adverbs  promiscuously  used. 
"  He  has  read  once."  "  John  is  not  happy." 

"  I  will  first  remind  you."  "  Whither  shall  I  fly  ?" 

"  I  saw  him  yesterday."  "  My  brother  sends  me  the  pa- 

"  I  have  eaten  sufficiently."  per  monthly." 


XVI.     OF   THE   PREPOSITION. 

Q.  To  sa}',  '•'  The  cider  is— cellar,"  would  make  no  sense  :  can  you  inform 
me  what  would  make  sense  ? 

242.  "  The  cider  is  in  the  cellar." 

Q.  By  placing'  the  little  word  in  after  cider  is,  and  before  cellar,  the  sen- 
tence is  rendered  complete  :  what  office,  then,  does  in  perform  ? 

243.  It  connects  words,  and  thereby  shows  the  re- 
lation betv/een  them. 

Q.  W^hat  does  the  word  preposi/.ion  mean  ? 

244.  Placed  before. 

Q.  What,  then,  may  those  words  like  in  be  calli-d,  as  they  :ire  plaeed  be- 
fore other  words  to  connect  them  with  words  preceding  ? 

245.  Prepositions. 

Q.  What,  then,  are  prepositions  ? 

246.  Prepositions  are  words  used  to  connect  words, 
and  tliereby  show  the  relation  between  them. 

247.   //z'-sf  of  the  prinrlpal  Pr, "positions. 


Ainons: 

at 

rniK'omijii;^ 

n!?ftr 

throughout 
touciiing 

nro;iii(| 

In- 

(lisWll 

of 

amidst 

holow 

CXCC|;t 

off 

up 

athwart 

between 

excentiiiir 

on 

upon 

after 

bencatli 

for          - 

over 

under 

about 

behind 

fi-om 

OlTt  of 

underneath 

ao^'ainst 

betwixt 

in 

respecting 

uivto 

across 

beside 

into 

to 

with 

above 

bej'ond 

instead  of 

towards 

within 

according  to 

before 

notwithstanding 

through 

without 

Q.  Will  you  mention  the  prepositions  beginning  widi  a?  v.iihb?  c7  d? 
t?  f?  i?  n?  0?  r?  t?  u?  vol 


39  ENGLISH  aRAftlMAK. 

Q.  Will  you  now  repeat  all  the  prepositions  1 

Q.  Do  we  say,  "  He  works  for  I/'  or,  "  He  works  for  me"  ? 

Q.  In  what  case  is  ?ne  ?  (127.) 

Q.  What  case,  then,  follows  prepositions  ? 

248.  The  objective  case. 

Q.  Tliis  fact  is  of  sufficient  importance  to  constitute  a  rule :  will  you, 
therefore,  repeat 

Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
"  John  found  his  hat  in  the  road" 

249.  In  is  a  preposition,  a  word  used  to  connect  words, 
and  show  the  relation  between  them  ;  it  here  shows  the  rela- 
tien  between  hat  and  road. 

Road  is  a  noun  ;  it  is  a  name — common  ;  it  is  a  general 
name — neuter  gender  ;  it  is  neither  male  nor  female — 
THIRD  person  ;  it  is  spoken  of — singular  number  ;  it 
means  but  one — objective  case  ;  it  is  the  object  of  the  rela- 
tion denoted  by  the  preposition  in,  and  governed  by  it  accord 
ing  to 

Rule  X.  Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case.* 

EXERCISES    IN     PARSING    CONTINUED. 

"  John  ran  through  the  house  "  I  will  search  the  house  dili- 

into  the  garden."  gently  for  hi"m." 

"  We  have  deceived  him  to  our  "  We   might  learn  the  lesson 

sorrow."  before  them." 

"We  came  in  season."  "  According  to  my  impression, 

"You  study  grammar  for  your  he  is  in  fault." 

improvement  in  language."  "  Notwithstanding  his  poverty, 

"  From  virtue  to  vice  the  prog-  he  was  the  delight  of  hia 

ress  is  gradual."  acquaintances." 

"  They  travelled  into    France  "  On  all  occasions  she  behaved 

through  Italy."  with  propriety." 

"  He  lives  within  his  income."  "  Of  his  talents  we  might  say 

•'  Without  the  aid  of  charity,  he  much." 

lived  very  comfortably  by  "  We  may  expect  a  calm  after 

his  industry."  a  storm." 


XVII.     OF  THE  CONJUNCTION. 

Q.  When  1  say. ''  Jonn his  hook,"  the  sense,  you  perceive,  is  incom- 

plete.     Can  you  put  a  word  into  iho  blank  which  will  complete  the  sense  ? 

250.  "  John  reads  his  book." 

*  The  remaining  words  are  'jarsed  as  before. 


CONJUNCTIONS.  37 

Q.  Can  you  iiifonn  me  what  the  foregoing  expretsion  is  called  7 

251.  A  sentence. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  a  sentence  7 

252.  A  collection  of  words,  forming  a  complete  sense. 

Q.  "  Life  is  short."  This  expression  is  called  a  sentence  :  can  you  tell  me 
what  kiud,  ajid  why  ? 

253.  It  is  a  simple  sentence,  because  it  makes  sense, 
and  has  but  one  nominative  and  one  verb. 

Q.  W^hat  does  the  term  compound  mean  ? 

254.  It  means  composed  of  two  or  more  things. 

Q.  "  Life  is  short,  and  art  is  long."  This  sentence  is  made  up  of  two  sim 
pie  sentences  ;  what,  therefore,  may  it  be  called  7 

255.  A  compound  sentence. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  a  compound  sentence  7 

256.  A  compound  sentence  contains  two  or  more 
simple  sentences  connected  together. 

Q.  What  does  tlie  term  cmtjunciion  signify  7 

257.  Union,  or  joining  together. 

Q.  In  the  compound  sentence,  "  John  writes,  and  William  learns,"  th* 
simple  sentences  are  joined  together  by  the  word  and:  what  word,  then,  may 
and  be  called  1 

258.  A  Conjunction. 

Q.  "  The  king  and  queen  are  aji  amiable  pair."  In  this  seutence,  words 
and  not  scutenees  are  connected  by  ami :  can  you  point  out  the  words  so  cou 
nected  ? 

259.  King  and  queen. 

Q.  From  the  foregoing  particulars;  what  appears  to  be  the  use  of  the  con- 
junction 7 

260.  A  conjunction  is  used  to  connect  words  and 
sentences  together. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  Five  and  four  are  nine,"  what  do  I  meaii  ? 

261.  Five  added  to  four  make  nine. 

Q.  What,  then,  is  implied  by  and? 

262.  Addition. 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  I  will  go,  if  you  will  accompany  me,"  what  does  the 
conjunction  (/"imply 7 

263.  Condition  or  supposition. 

Q.  What  docs  the  word  cop?dalive  mean  ? 

264.  Uniting,  joining,  or  Unking  together. 

Q.  And,  if,  &c.  are  called  copulative  conjunctions  :  can  you  tell  me  why  ? 

265.  Because  a  copulative  conjunction  connects  or 
continues  a  sentence  by  expressing  an  addition,  a 
supposition,  a  cause,  &c. 

Q.  The  following  arc  the  principal  conjunctions  of  this  class  :  will  you  re 
peat  ihem  ? 

266.  "  And,  both,  because,  besides,  for,  if,  provided, 
since,  then,  that,  therefore,  wherefore." 

Q.  When  I  say,  "  James  and  John  will  come,"  I  mean  both  will  come  ; 
but  when  1  s'ly,  "  James  or  John  will  come,"  what  do  1  mean  7 

267.  That  either  James  or  John,  one  of  them,  will 
come.  c^ 

4     ,: 


»1)4684 


38  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

Q.  Are  the  Words  in  this  sentence,  then,  joined  or  disjoined  7 

268.  Disjoined. 

Q.  What  word  is  it  that  expresses  the  disjoining  ? 

269.  Or. 

Q.  What  part  of  speech  is  or  ? 

270.  Conjunction. 

Q.  What  docs  the  word  disjunctire  mean  ? 

271.  Disjoining  OX  separating. 

Q.  What  kind  of  a  conjunction,  then,  shall  we  call  or? 

272.  A  disjunctive  conjunction. 

Q.  "  James  will  come,  but  Henry  will  not."  Here  the  two  clauses  of  the 
sentence  are  opposed  to  each  other  in  meaning-,  and  the  word  but  separates 
these  two  clauses  :  what,  then,  does  this  word  imply  ? 

273.  Opposition  of  meaning. 

Q.  From  the  foregoing,  what  appears  to  be  the  use  of  the  disjunctive  con- 
junction ? 

274.  The  conjunction  disjunctive  connects  sen- 
tences, by  expressing  opposition  of  meaning  in  vari- 
ous degrees. 

Q.  The  following  are  the  principal  conjunctions  of  tliis  class  :  will  you  re- 
peat them  ? 

275.  "  But,  than,  though,  either,  or,  as,  unless,  nei- 
ther, nor,  less,  yet,  notwithstanding." 

Q.  Prepositions,  you  recollect,  connect  words  as  well  as  conjunctions  i 
how,  then,  can  ^'oii  tell  the  one  from  ihe  oilier  ? 

276.  Prepositions  show  the  relation  between  words, 
but  conjunctions  express  an  addition,  a  supposition,  a 
cause,  or  an  opposition  of  meaning. 

Q.  "  He  and  she  write."     In  what  case  is  he  ?   slie  7 

Q.  The  pronouns  he  and  slie,  you  perceive,  are  both  in  the  same  case,  and 
connected  by  the  conjunction  and :  when,  then,  may  nouns  cind  pronouns 
be  connected  ? 

277.  When  they  are  in  the  same  case. 

Q.  "  She  will  sing  and  dances."     How  may  this  sentence  be  corrected  7 

278.  "  Site  will  sing  and  dance." 

Q.  In  what  mood  and  tense  is  "  She  will  sing"  ? 

Q.  To  say,  "  She  danc»,"  is  incorrect ;  dance,  then,  in  this  example,  can- 
not be  in  the  present  tense  :  will  you,  then,  inform  me  what  "  She  will  sing  and 
dance"  means,  when  fully  expressed  ? 

279.  "  She  will  sing  and  she  will  dance." 

Q.  Here  viH  dance  is  in  the  future  tense,  as  well  as  will  sing :  when,  then, 
may  verbs,  in  general,  be  connected  '.' 

280.  When  they  are  in  the  same  mood  and  tense. 

Q.  From  the  foregoing  particulars,  what  appears  to  be  the  rule  for  the  use 
of  conjunctions,  in  connecting  words  ? 

KUiii:  XI. 

Conjunctions  usually  connect  verbs  of  the  same 
mood  and  tense,  and  nouns  or  pronouns  of  the 
same  case. 


INTERJECTIONS.  39 

EXERCISES  IN    PARSING. 

'^^  John  assists  his  father  (iiid  mother." 
281 .  And  is  a  conjunction,  a  word  chiefly  used  to  connect 
A^ords  and  sentences — copulative  ;    it  connects  father  and 
mother. 

Mother  is  a  noun  ;  it  is  a  name — common  ;  it  is  a  general 
name — feminine  gender  ;  it  is  the  name  of  a  female — 
THIRD  PERSON  ;  it  is  spoken  of — sin»;ui.ar  number  ;  it 
means  but  one — and  it  is  one  of  the  objects  of  assists,  and 
IS,  therefore,  in  the  objective  case,  and  connected  with 
father  by  the  conjunction  and,  according  to 

Rule  XI.  Conjunctions  usually  connect  oerbs  of  the  same 
mood  and  tense,  and  nouns  or  pronouns  of  the  same  case. 

EXKRCISES    in     PARSING    CONTINL'ED. 

"  I  will  reward  him  and  them  at  "  She   reads   well,   dances   (3.) 

some  future  time."  elegantly,  and  plays  admi- 

"  We  in  vain  (1.)  look  for  a  path  rably  on  the  piano-forte." 

between  virtue  and  vice."  "  Intemperance    destroys     the 
"  Reproof    either    hardens    or  mind    and     benumbs     the 

softens  its  object."  senses  of  man." 

"  In  the  morning  of  life,  we  ea-  "You  may  read  this   sentence 

gerly  pursue   pleasure,  but  first,  and  then  parse  it." 

oftentimes   meet  (2.)    with  "  He  has  equal  knowledge,  but 

sad  disappointments."  inferior  judgment." 

"  A  good  scholar  never  mutters  "  John  rises  early  m  the  morn- 

nor  disobeys  his  instructer."  insf,  and  pursues  his   stud- 

ies." 


XVIII.     OF  INTERJECTIONS. 

Q.  When  I  exclaim,  "Oh!  I  have  ruined  my  friend,"  "Alas!  I  fear  for 
life."  which  words  here  appear  to  be  thrown  in  helween  the  sentences,  to  ex 
press  passion  or  feeling  ? 

282.  Oh!  Alas! 

Q.  What  does  iiderjectkm  mean  .' 

283.  Thrown  betiveeji. 

Q.  What  name,  tlien,  shall  we  give  such  words  as  oh!  alas.  Sec.  I 

284.  Interjections. 

Q.  What,  tlien,  are  interjections  ? 

285.  Interjections  are  words  thrown  in  between  the 
parts  of  sentences,  to  express  the  passions  or  sudden 
feelings  of  the  speaker.  ^ 

(1.)  //J  ram  means  the  same  £is  cfifWiy.  It  may,  thereore,  be  called  an 
adverbial  phrase,  qualifying  look,  by  Rule  IX. 

(2.)  Meet  agrees  with  we  undcraiood,  and  is,  therefore,  connected  with  p/r 
sueoy  \hc  conjunction  but.  according  to  Rule  XI. 

(3.)  Dances  m\d  plays  both  agree  with  she.  understood,  an  '  are.  theref.oie 
connected,  the   former  with  reails,  and  the  laUer  wth  dances,  by  Rule  XI. 


40  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


l::st  of  interjections. 

1.  Of  earnestness  or  grief;  as,  "  O !  oh  !  alas  !  all !" 

2.  Of  ivonder  ;  as,  "  Really  !  strange  !" 

3.  Of  calling;  as,  "  Halloo !  ho!  hem!" 

4.  Of  attention;  as,  "Behold!  lo  !  hark!" 

5.  Of  disgust ;  as,  "  Foh  !  fy  !  fudge  !  away  !" 

6.  Of  silence  ;  as,  "  Hush  !  hist !" 

7.  Of  contempt ;  as,  "  Pish  !  tush  ^' 

8.  Of  saluting ;  as,  "  Welcome  !  hail !" 

Q.  Will  you  examine  tlio  foregoing  list,  and  then  name  an  interjection  of 

grief?  One  of  wonder  ?     One  of  cr.lling  ?  One  of  attention  ?     One  of  dis 

gTist  ]  One  of  silence  7     One  of  saluting  ? 

Q.  How  may  an  interjection  generally  be  known  ? 

286.  By  its  taking  an  exclamation  point  after  it. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
"  Oh!  I  have  alienated  my  friend." 

287.  Oh  is  an  interjection,  a  word  used  to  express  pas- 
sion or  feeling. 

0°  The  remaining  words  are  parsed  as  before. 

EXERCISES    IN    PARSING    CONTINUED. 

"Oh!  I  must  go  and  see  (1.)  "Strange!    I    did    not    know 
my  dear  father  before  (2.)  you." 

he  dies."  "  Hush  !  our  instructer  is  at  the 

"  We  eagerly  pursue  pleasure,  door." 

but,  alas  !  we  often  mistake  "  Fy  !  how  angry  he  is  !" 
the  road  to  its  (3.)  enjoy- 
ment." 

(I.)  The  sense  is,  "  I  must  go,  and  I  must  see ;"  the  verb  see,  then,  agrees 
with  /,  understood,  and  is,  therefore,  coiniected  with  must  go,  according  to 
Rule  XI. 

(2.)  Before,  an  adverb. 

(3.)  Apply,  first,  Rule  V. ;  then,  Rule  I. 


RECAPITULATION. 


CRITICAL     REMARKS. 

C  O IVI P  O  S I T I O  J^- . 

-XlX.     ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

288.  Enolisii  Grammar  teaches  us  to  speak  and  write 
the  English  language  correctly. 

2S9.  GRAM]\tAR  is  divided  into  four  parts,  namely, 
290.  1.  Ortho<;raphv,  3.  Syntax, 

2.    Etymology,  4.  Prosody. 


XX.     OF  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

291.  Ortho(;raphy  includes  a  knowledge  of  (he  nature 
and  power  of  letters,  and  teaches  how  to  spell  words  correctly. 
This  part  of  grammar  is  usually  learned  from  spelling-books 
and  dictionaries. 

292.  Orthography  means  word-mnkin^,  or  spelling. 


XXI.     OP  ETYMOLOGY. 

293.  Etymolocjy  teaches  how  to  form,  from  all  the  words 
in  the  English  language,  several  grand  divisions  or  .sorts, 
cotnmonly  called  Parts  of  Speech. 

294.  It  includes  a  knowledge  of  the  meaning  and  use  of 
words — also  their  different  changes  and  derivations. 

SiW.   Etii/iiolozy  signifies  the  origin  or  pedigree  of  words. 

XIX.  What  does    Englisli    grammar         How   is   a  knov.lpdge  of  ortlic^Taphy 
te.-ich  ?  988.  usna'.ly  olitaineii .'  291. 

I:ito  liow  many  parts  is  it  divided.'  289.  Wliat  does  ortliograjihy  mean  .'   095. 

What  are  tliey  ?  SDO.  XXI.  What  does  etymology  teach  .'293. 

XX.  What  doo3  orthography  inchsde  What  does  it  ineluae  .i'  SS)4. 

snii  t"sch  .'  3!n.  Whsl  iloes  the  word  s.^nify  .'  395- 

-4* 


42  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

XXII.     OF    SYNTAX. 

29C.  Syntax  teaches  how  to  arrange  or  form  words  into 
sentences  correctly. 

297.  It  includes  a  knowledge  of  the  rules  of  composi- 
tion,   formed   from   the   practice   of  the   best  writers   and 

speakers. 

298.  SifHtax  si^i&es  an  a7igiiig  or  placing  together ;  or,  as  used  ill  gram- 
mar, sentence-maki7ig. 

XXIII.    ETYMOLOGY  AND  SYNTAX  COMBINED 

299.  The  words  of  the  English  language  are  usually 
divided  into  nine  sorts,  commonly  called  Parts  of  Speech, 
namely, 

Noun,  Pronoun,  Preposition, 

Article,  Verb,  Conjunction, 

Adjective,  Adverb,  Interjection. 


XXIV.     OF  NOUNS. 

300.  A  noun  is  the  name  of  any  person,  place  or  thing ; 
as,  7nan,  London,  knife. 

301.  Nouns  are  of  two  kinds,  proper  and  common. 
CoMJioN  nouns  are  general  names ;  that  is,  they  are  names 

common  to  all  individuals  of  the  same  kind  or  sort;  as,  house, 
city,  river. 

302.  Proper  nouns  are  particular  names  ;  that  is,  they 
are  the  names  of  particular  individuals  of  the  same  kind  or 
sort;  as,  George,  Boston,  Ttlississiju^i. 

303.  When  proper  names  have  an  article  placed  before  them,  thiy  are  used 
as  common  names  ;  as,  "  He  is  the  Cicero  of  his  age." 

304.  When  a  proper  noun  admits  of  a  plural,  it  becomes  a  common  noun  j 

XXII.  VVliat  floes  syntax  teach .'  296.  What   does  the  word  common  mean? 
What  does  it  include'  297.                         31. 

What  does  the  word  signify .' 2?8.  Wliat  is  a  common   noun.'  301.     Give 

XXIII.  How  many  dilTerent  sorts  of     an  oxamplc. 

words  arc  there  .' 2<J9.  What  does  proper  mean?  34. 

What  arc  they  ?  299.  ^Vhat  is  a  proper  noua  ?  3U2.     Give  an 

What   are    these    sorts  of  words  com-     example. 
monlv  called  ?  29'J.  When  proper  nouns  have  an  article  be- 

XXIV.  VVIiat.  does    the  word  7(0«ii     fore  them,  liow  are  tlioy  used  ?  303.  Give 
mean  ?*  an  example.  ,   .       , 

What  is  a  noun?  300.     Give  an  exam-  Are  proper  names  used  as  such  in  th» 

pie.  plnral?  304. 

How  many  different  kinds  of  nouns  are  Why  cannot  proper  names  have  a  plu- 

thcre,  and  what  are  they?  301.  ral  ?  304. 

*  See  I.  Ut  answer. 


NOUNS.  43 

as,  "  The  twelve  Ctesars,"  or,  "  The  seven  Jameses."  This  is  obvious  from 
the  fact,  that  a  proper  name  is,  iii  its  nature,  descriptive  of  one  object  only, 
and,  therefore,  essentially  singular.  Accordingly,  the  nouns  Spaniard,  Euro- 
pean, American,  &c.  are  conimou  nouns,  as  well  as  their  plurals,  Spaniai-ds, 
Europeans,  America/is,  &c.* 

305.  Common  nouns  may  also  be  used  to  signify  nidividuals,  by  the  addi- 
tion of  articles  or  pronouns;  as,  "  The  boy  is  studious;"  "  That ^>Z  is  dis- 
cfeet." 

306.  When  a  noun  signifies  iiva/tij,  it  is  called  a  noifn  of  multitude,  or  a  col- 
lective noun  ;  as,  "  The  people,"  "  Tlie  army." 

307.  Abstract  signifies  taken  from :  hence  an  abst/act  noun  is  the  name  of  a 
quality  abstracted  from  its  substance  ;  as,  knowledge,  goodness,  virtue,  &c. 

308.  To  nouns  belong  person,  gender,  number  and  case. 


XXV.     PERSON. 

309.  When  any  person,  in  speaking,  introduces  his  own 
name,  it  is  the  first  person ;  as,  "  I,  James,  of  the  city  of 
Boston,  do  give,"  &c. 

310.  The  name  of  the  person  spoken  to,  is  the  second 
person  ;   as,  *'  James,  come  to  me." 

311.  The  name  of  the  person  or  thing  sp6ken  of,  or  about, 
is  the  third  person  ;  as,  "  James  has  come," 


XXVI.     GENDER. 

312.  Gender  is  the  distinction  of  sex. 

313.  Nouns  have  four  genders — the  masculine,  the  femi- 
nine, the  common,  and  the  neuter. 

314.  The  masculine  gender  denotes  the  names  of  males  ; 
as,  man,  hay,  &c. 

315.  The  feminine  gender  denotes  the  name  of  females; 
as,  toonian,  girl 

What  do  they  bucome  when  soused.'  When  is  a  noun  of  the  second  person  ? 

304.  Give  an  e-vample.  310.  Give  an  example. 

What   kind   of  nonns    are    Spaniard,  When  is  a  noun  of  the  third   person? 

AmerUans.  Spaniards  1  304.  311.  Give  an  examnle. 

Wiiiit  elToct  does   the    use   of  articles  XXVt.  Wliat  does   the   word  gender 

have  on  coininO!i  rtoflns  .'  oOo.  mean  .■'  14. 

Wiiat  IB  a  noun  of  muffifude,  ov  a  col-  What   is  gender  as  applied  to  nouns? 

lecti-'e  nOuii  ?  306.  Give  an  example.  313. 

VVhat  is  an  abstract  noun  .'  307.     Give  What  docs  llie  wonlTrtasci/Zine  mean?  15. 

an  exami)le.  What   docs   the   masculine   gender  of 

What  helon;;  to  notins?  303.  nouns  denote .'  314.  Give  an  example. 

XXV.     Whou   is   a  noun  of  the    first  What  does /srremme  mean  ?    19. 

person?  309.  Give  an  e.xdmple.  What  does  the  feminine  gender  denote  ? 

315.  Give  an  example. 

Svain  \i  Ihe  proper  name  of  a  countrj',  and  Spaniard  has,  by  some  grammarians,  beep  called  the  proper 
;e  of  a  iieople  ;  but  the  latter  is  a  generic  ter-m,  characterizing  any  one  of  a  groat  number  of  penosB,  tf 

r  nnnnertion  with  Rnxin.^^Eji/rurfODBidin , 


Dime  of  a  lieople  ;  but  the  latter  is  a  ^ene 
their  connection  with  Sp&ia..—Eii^dofxdA 


44 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


316.  The  common  gender  denotes  the  names  of  such 
animals  as  may  be  either  male  or  female ;  as,  parent,  bird. 

317.  The  neuter  gender  denotes  the  names  of  objects 
which  are  neither  males  nor  females ;  as,  chair,  table. 

318.  Some  nouns,  naturally  neuter,  do,  by  a  figure  of  speech,  as  it  is  called, 
bcrome  ipasculine  or  feitiininc  ;  as  when  we  say  of"  the  sun,  "  He  is  setting,' 
and  of  a  ship,  "  She  sails  well,"  &c. 

31  y.  The  English  language  has  three  methods  of  distinguishing  sex,  viz.  i 
319-1.  By  different  words  ;  as, 


Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female 

Bachelor, 

Maid. 

Husband, 

Wife. 

Hoar, 

Sow. 

King, 

Queen. 

l!oy, 

Girl. 

Lad, 

Lass. 

I'rother, 

Sister. 

Lord, 

Lady. 

Burk, 

Doe. 

Man, 

Woman. 

Bull. 

Cow. 

AI  aster. 

Mistress. 

lUillock  or    > 
Sieer,             ). 

Heifer. 

Milter, 

Spawner. 

Nephew, 

Niece. 

Cock, 

Hen. 

I!am, 

Ewe. 

Dog, 

Bitch. 

Singer, 

\  Songstress  or 
"(  Sin"er. 

Drake, 

Duck. 

Karl, 

Countess. 

Sir, 

Madam. 

Father, 

ilother. 

Sloven, 

Slut. 

Friar, 

Nun. 

Son, 

Daughter 

Gander, 

Goose. 

Stag, 

Himl. 

Hart, 

Roe. 

Uncle, 

Aont. 

Horse, 

Mare. 

Wizard, 

Witch. 

319-2.  By  R  different 

e  of  termination 

;  fis- 

Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

Abbot, 

Abbess. 

Enchanter, 

Enchantress. 

Actor, 

Actress. 

Executor, 

Executrix. 

Administrator, 

Administratrix. 

God, 

Goddess. 

Adulterer, 

Adulteress. 

Governor, 

Governess. 

Ambassador, 

Ambassadress. 

Heir, 

Heiress. 

Arbiter, 

Arbitress. 

Hero, 

Heroine. 

Baron, 

Baroness. 

Hunter, 

Huntress. 

Bridegroom, 

Pride. 

Host, 

Hoste-ss. 

Benefactor, 

Benefactress. 

Instructer, 

Instructress. 

Caterer, 

Cateress. 

Jew, 

Jewess. 

Chanter, 

Chaiitress. 

Landgrave, 

Landgravine. 

Conductor, 

Conductress. 

Lion, 

Lioness^ 

Count, 

Coijntess. 

Marquis, 

Marchioness. 

Czar, 

Czarina. 

Maj'or, 

Mayore-ss. 

Deacon, 

Dea<'oncss. 

Patron, 

Patroness. 

Duke, 

Duchess. 

Peer, 

Peeress. 

Elector, 

Eleelress. 

Poet, 

Poetess. 

Emperor, 

Empress. 

Priest. 

Priestess. 

What  does  the  common  gender  denote  f 
31H.   Give  an  example. 

What  does  nsuter  mean.'  2n. 

What  does  tlie  neuter  gender  denote  .' 
317.  Give  an  example. 

What  is  said  of  nouns  naturally  neu- 
ter, in  respect  to  gender?  318.  Give  an 
example. 

How  many  genders  do  nouns  have,  and 
what  are  they  .'  30. 

How  many  methods  ar«  there  in  Enj- 
ii»b  of  distin^uisliin^  anx .'  319. 

Which  is  the  first ;  as,  iOy  T^frZ  7  319-], 

Will  ?ou«r>ell  th«  ftMiiinmeeorrespond- 
\/i\ig  to  Itrir^r  f  319-1.    to  irvyl   nepk^v  1 


vizard  ?  friar  ?  .<rir  7  drake  ?  aarl  7  gander  7 
hart  7  king  7  lad  7  man  7  ma.ite.r  ?  singer  7 
sloven  7  son  7  siaa-  7  unele  7 

Will  you  spell  the  maBcnline  corrn- 
dponding  to  mau/?  g-irl7  madam7  daugh^ 
ter  7  niere  7 

What  is  the  second  method  of  dictin- 
guishing  sex  ;  as,  abliot  7  abbess  7  310—2. 

Will  you  spell  the  feminine  corre- 
sponding to  abhot7  actor7  administrator 7 
taron  ?  benefactor  7  bridegroom  7  conduct- 
or 7  czar  7  dvkc  7  e^iipcror  7  eiecntor  7 
god  7  govfr-A»r  7  hfir  7  here  7  host  7  hunt- 
er 7  instructer  7  .few  7  lion  7  narquis  1 
yairon  1  petr  7  yrnprittor  ?  ehepherd  ?  tor. 


NOUNS. 


Male 

Feincde. 

Male.                     FemaU, 

Prince, 

Princess. 

o  ,                       5  Sultaness, 
Sultan,                 ^  Sultana. 

Prior. 
Prophet, 

Prioress. 

Prophetess. 

Tiger,                     I'igress. 

Protector, 

Protectress. 

'I'raitor,                  Traitress. 

Proprietor, 

Proprietress. 

Tutor,                     Tutoress. 

Shepherd, 

Shepherdess. 

Viscount,                Viscountess 

Songster, 

Songstress. 

Votary,                   Votaress. 

Sorcerer, 

Sorceress. 

Widower,              Widow. 

319-3.  By  prefixing  a  noun 

pronoun,  or  adjective  3  as, 

A  cock-sparrow, 

A  hen-sparrow. 

A  man-servant, 

A  maid-servant. 

A  he 

-goat, 
-near. 

A  she-goat. 
A  she-bear. 

A  he 

A  male  child. 

A  female  child. 

Male 

desceudsiits, 

Female  descendants. 

XXVII.     NUMBER. 

320.  Number  shows  how  many  are  meant,  whether  one 
or  more. 

321.  Nouns  have  two  numbers,  the  singular  and  the 
plural. 

322.  The  singular  number  expresses  but  one  ;  as,  hoy. 

323.  The  plural  number  implies  more  than  one ;  as,  hoys. 

324.  Some  nouns  are  used  in  the  singular  number  only ; 
as,  wheat,  gold,  sloth,  pride,  dutifulness. 

325.  Other  nouns  are  used  in  the  plural  number  only ; 
as,  bellows,  scissors,  lungs,  riches,  &lc. 

326.  Some  nouns  are  the  same  in  both  numbers;  as, 
deer,  sheep,  swine. 

327.  The  plural  number  of  nouns  is  regularly  formed  by 
adding  s  to  the  singular  ;  as,    sing,  dove,  plur.  doves. 

323.  The  irregular  mode  of  forming  the  plural  is  as  follows  :  when  the  noun 
singular  ends  in  x,  ch,  sh,  or  ss,  we  add  es  to  form  the  plural  5  as,  box,  boxes ; 
church,  churches ;  lash,  lashes ;  kiss,  kisses. 

329.  Nouns  ending  in  /  or  fe,  change  these  terminations  into  ves  to  form 
the  plural  j  as,  loaf,  loaves ;  wife,  wives. 


cerer  ?  sultan  ?  tiger  7  tutor  ?  viscount  ? 
votary  ?  widower  ? 

Will  you  spell  the  masculine  corre- 
sponding to  abbess  7  czarina  7  duchess  7 
ambassadress  7  heroine  7  huntress  7  poet- 
ess 7  prophetess  7  widow  7 

What  is  the  third  method  of  distin- 
guishing sex  ;  as,  a  man-servant  7  a  maid- 
servant! 319—3. 

Will  you  spell  the  feminine  corre- 
Bponding  to  male  child  7  male  descendants  7 

XXVII.  What  does  the  word  number 
mean  ?  5. 

What  does  the  number  of  nouns  show? 
320. 

What  does  singular  mean .'  6. 


What  does  the  singular  nftmber  of 
nouns  imply  !  322.  Give  an  example. 

What  does  plural  mean  .'  10. 

What  does  the  plural  number  of  nouns 
imply.'  323.     Give  an  e.xample. 

How  are  wheat,  gold,  &c.  uesd  i  324. 

How  are  bellows,  lungs,  &c.  used.'  325. 

What  is  said  of  deer,  sheep,  &c. .'    326. 

How  many  numbers  do  nouns  have,  and 
what  are  they  ?  321. 

How  is  the  plural  number  regularly 
formed.'  327.  Give  an  example. 

When  do  we  add  es  to  form  the  plural  ? 
328.  Give  an  example. 

What  is  the  plural  of  loaf  7  329. 

What  is  the  rule  for  it .'  329. 


46 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAK. 


330.  \Micn  a  noun  singular  ends  in  y,  with  a  vowel  before  it,  the  plural  it 
formed  regularly ;  as,  key,  keys;  delay,  (/elutjs;  valley,  valleys.  Bui  if  they 
does  not  have  a  vowel  before  it,  the  plural  is  formed  by  chang'ing  y  into  ies  ; 
a,s,Jly,Jiies ;  beauty,  beauties. 

331.  Tiie  following  nouns  form  their  plurals  not  according  to  any  general 
rules  : — 


Plur. 
Mice. 
Lice. 
Cows  .'•r 
Kine. 
Pence.  (L) 
Dice.  (2.) 
Peas.  (3.) 

332.  Alatliematics,  melaplu/sics,  piieimiatics,  ethics,  politics,  &c.  are  reck- 
oned either  as  singular  or  plural  nouns.  The  same  is  equally  true  of  meaTis, 
alms,  amends.  Antipodes,  ciedtiida,  minutia',  literati,  &c.  are  always  plural. 
Bandit  is  now  considered  the  singular  of  banditti.  The  noun  neics  is  always 
singular.  Mi  ny  nouns  form  ihc^r  plurals  according  to  the  laws  of  the  laii 
guage  from  which  they  are  derived.     The  following  are  of  this  class  : — 


Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Man, 

Men. 

ftlouse, 

Woman, 

Women. 

Louse, 

Child, 

Chiklren. 

Cow, 

Ox, 

0.\en. 

Tooth, 

Teeth. 

Penny, 

Foot, 

Feel. 

Die, 

Goose, 

Geese. 

Pea, 

Sing.  Plur. 

Fish,  Fishes.  (3.) 

Cupful,  Cnpfuls. 

Spoonful,  Spoonfuls. 

Brother-in-law,  Brothers-in-law. 
Court-martial,    Courts-martial. 
n    .1  ^  Brothers  or 

Brother,  ]  Brethren. 


Singular. 
Antithesis, 

Appendi.x, 

Apex, 

Arcanum, 

Automaton, 

Axis, 

Beau, 

Basis, 

Calx, 

Cherub, 

Crisis, 

Criterion, 

Datum, 

Diaeresis, 

Desideratum, 

Effluvium, 

Ellipsis, 

Emphasis, 

Encomium, 

Erratum, 


Plural. 
Antitheses. 

5  Appendixes  or 
Appendices. 

Apices. 

Arcana. 

Automata 

Axes. 

Beaux  or  Beaus. 

Bases. 

Calces. 
(  Cherubim  or 
\  Cherubs. 

Crises. 

Criteria. 

Data. 

Di^^reses. 

Desiderata. 

Effluvia. 

Ellipses. 

Emphases. 
5  Encomia  or 
\  Encomiums. 

Errata. 


Singular. 
Genius, 
Genus, 
HypoiheBis, 
Ignis  faluus, 

Index, 

Lamina, 
Magnus, 

Memorandum, 

Metamorphosis, 

Parenthesis, 

Phenomenon, 

Radius, 

Stamen, 

Seraph, 

Stimulus, 
Stratum, 
Thesis, 
Vertex, 

Vortex, 


Plural. 

Genii.  (4.) 

Genera. 

Hypotheses. 

Ignes  fatui. 

Indices  or 

Indexes.  (5.) 

Laminae. 

Magi. 

I  Memoranda  or 
'  Memorandums. 

Metamorphoses, 

Parentheses. 

Phenomena. 

Radii  or  Radiuses. 

Stamina. 


J  Seraphim  or 


Seraphs. 
Stimuli. 
Strata. 
Theses. 
Vertices, 
ices  or 
Drlexes. 


(  Vortic 
(  Vorle: 


Will  you  spell  the  plural  of  delay  ?  330. 
valley  7  What  is  the  rule  for  forming 
these  plurals .'  330. 

Will  you  spoil  the  plural  of  fly  7  330. 
beauty  ?  Rule  for  the  plural .' 

Do  man,  woman,  form  their  plurala  reg- 
ularly, or  irreg'ularly  .''  331. 

Will  you  spell  the  plural  of  moji  ?  of 
woman'?  child'!  ozl  tooth?  foot!  goose 7 
mouse  ?  louse  7  brother  7  die  7  Jlsh  7  spoon- 
ful 7  court- m.artial  7 

Will  you  spell  the  sinj^ular  of  lice7 
kine  7  cnr':s7  brethren?  oxen?  teeth  7 
pence  7  pennies?  pea.i?  fshes?  cupfuls? 
brothers-ln-t aw  ? 

What  is  the  plural  of  ;>ea,  when  we  re- 
fer to  quantity  ?  Offish  7 


What  is  the  singular  of  banditti^ 
339. 

In  accordance  with  what  laws  does  an- 
titlirsis  form  the  plural .'  332. 

Will  you  spell  the  plural  of  apex?  ap- 
pendix? arcanum?  avtomatou?  axis?  cri- 
sis? basis?  criterion?  datum?  desidera- 
tum 7  effluvium?  encomium?  erratumi 
genius?  index  7  mcmirrandum? 

Will  you  spell  the  singular  of  basts  1 
beaux?  cherubs?  ellipses?  genii?  tiitsesl 
parentheses?  stimuli?  strata? 

How  are  mathematics,  optics,  tc.  con- 
sidorefi  in  regard  to  number.'  339. 

Of  what  number  is  means?  332.  alTns^ 
amends?  antipodes?  literati?  news? 


(t.)  Penmss.v^hen  ttie  coin  is  meant.  {2.)  Dies,  (or  coining.  (3.)  Peaae  aoJ /i/i,  meaoing  quantities, 
but  pws  and  yl?/icj,  \^ben  number  is  meant. 

(4.)  GcrUi.  when  denotjug  aerial  or  inia^nary  spirits  ;  gcniu-^a,  wtien  dcnoliDg  persoys  of  genius.  (6.)  /ft- 
Ssxa,  when  dCDoting  pointers  or  tables  of  contents ;  indica,  w  hen  referring  to  algebraic  qvaotitics. 


NOUNS.  47 

XXVIII.      CASE. 

333.  Case  means  the  different  state,  condition,  or  rela- 
tion which  nouns  have  to  other  words  in  the  same  sentence. 

334.  In  Enjrlish,  nouns  have  three  cases — the  nominative, 
the  possessive,  and  tlie  objective. 

335.  The  nominative  case  is  usually  the  agent  or  doer, 
and  always  the  subject  of  the  verb. 

336.  'J'lic  subject  ix  the  thinj^  chiefly  spoken  of;  as,  "John  assists  Wil- 
liam :"  here,  John  is  llie  suljcct  spoken  of,  or  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb 
assists. 

337.  The  possessive  case  denotes  possession,  ownership, 
property,  &c.  ;  as,  "William's  book."  This  case  may  be 
distinguished  from  the  other  cases  by  the  apostrophe  or  the 
letter  i-. 

338.  A  noun  in  the  singular  forms  its  possessive  case  by 
taking  the  apostrophe  and  the  letter  s  after  it ;  as,  "  John's 
hat." 

339.  Plural  nouns  usually  form  their  possessive  case  sim- 
ply by  taking  the  apostrophe  ;  as,  "On  eagles'  wings." 

340.  When  tiie  phiral  of  nouns  does  not  end  in  s,  ihej  form  their  possessive 
case  by  taking-  both  the  apostrophe  and  the  letter  4-;  as,  •'  Men's  house:.." 

341.  When  the  sin?:u!ar  ends  in  ss,  the  apoitrtmhe  only  is  added  ;  as,  "  For 
goodness'  sake;"  except  tiie  noun  witiwss ;  as,  "  The  wihitss's  deposition." 

3t2.  Nouns  endinq;  in  nee  form  the  possessive  by  adding-  the  apostrophe 
only  ;  as,  "  For  conscience'  sake  :"  because  an  additional  s  would  occasion  too 
much  of  tlie  hissing  sound,  or  increase  the  difficulty  of  pronunciation. 

343.  The  objective  case  denotes  the  object  of  an  action 
or  relation. 

344.  In  the  sentence,  "John  strikes  him,"  him  is  the  object  of  the  action 
denoted  by  «/;^■AM ;  and  in  the  sentence,  "  He  went  from  London  to  York," 
York  is  the  object  of  the  relation  denoted  by  tlie  preposition  to. 

31.-).   df:clension  of  nouns. 

Siiin^u/ar.  Plural.  ^ingnfar.  Pbiral. 

Nominaiire  case,       IMother,  Mothers.  Man,  Men. 

Pos.ses.iire  case,        Mother's,  Mothers'.  Man's,  Men's. 

Objective  case,  Mother,  Mothers.  Man,  Men. 


XXVIII.     Wliat  ia  tho  moaniiiu  of  the  How  do  nouns  in  tlio  phiral .'  339. 

word  ra.'te  ?  47.  When  tlio  plural   noun  does  not  end  in 

What  is  meant  by  the  case    of  nouns.'  .<t,  liow    is    its    possessive  formed?     340. 

333.  Give  an  exninple. 

How  many  cases  liavf  nouns,  and  wliat  Wkon  the   singular  ends   in   ss,  how  is 

are  they?  334.                                       »  the  po^-ssive  case  formed  ?  341.     Give 

What  does  nnniiiiatirr  moan?  49.  an  example. 

W^hat   is   the    uonunative    case?    .'i3o.  How    is    the   possessive  case  of  nouns 

Give  an  example.  cndins  in  nee  formed  ?  342.    Give  an  ex- 

What  do   y<  u    understand  hy  the   snh-  ample. 

ject  ot'a  verb?  336.     Illustrati;    it  by  an  ^Vhy  is  not  the  s  adred  ?  342. 

example.  What  does  the   word  objective  mean  .' 

What  does  pn^.ie.^.iire  mean  ?  .59.  5."). 

What  does  the  possessive  case  denote  ?  What     does    the     objective     case    of 
337.  Give  an  example.  nouns     denote  ?      343.       Give     an    ex- 
How   may  this   case   he    distinguished  ample. 
from  the  other  cases  ?  337.  What  does   the   declension  of  nouua 

How   do   nouns  in  the  sinjrular    form  mean  ?  08. 

thnlr  possessive  case  ?  338.  Give  an  ex-  Will  you  decline  mother  1   345.    mani 

wnple.  brother  1  hati 


48  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

RX7Z,Z:    X. 

The  possessive  case  is  governed  by  the  following  noun. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"  John's  wife  returned." 

346.  John's  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  masculine  gender,  the 
THIRD  PERSON,  SINGULAR  NUMBER,  POSSESSIVE  CASE,  and  gov- 
erned by  un/e,  by  Rule  I. 

fVife  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  feminine  gender,  the  third 
PERSON,  SINGULAR  NUMBER,  and  NOMINATIVE  CASE  to  returned^ 
by  Rule  VI. 

Returned  is  an  intransitive  verb,  in  the  indicative  mood, 
IMPERFECT  tense — "  1.  I  rctumed  ;  2.  You  returned ;  3.  He 
returned,  or  wife  returned" — made  in  the  third  person,  sin- 
gular, and  agrees  with  wife,  by  Rule  VII. 

MORE     exercises     IN    SYNTAX. 

"  William's  son  has  come."  "  William's  wife's  sister  remain- 

"  John's  brother  died."  ed  in  town." 

"  John  makes  (1.)  boys'  hats."  "  Rufus  studied  Johnson's  Diction 

"  John  lost  his  knife."  ai'y." 

"  The  boys  neglected   their  les-  "  Mary's  bonnet  is  old." 

sons."  "  Virtue's  reward  is  sure."  (2.) 

"  Intemperance  ruins  its  votaries."  "  Rufus's  hat  is  new." 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 
"  Brothers  estate." 

347.  If  you  examine  the  foreg'oing  example,  you  will  find  it  difficult  to  as- 
certain whetlier  iho  estate  is  the  property  of  one  brother  or  more ;  if  of  one 
only,  an  apostrophe  should  preceae  the  s,  thus  ;  "  Brother's  estate  :"  but  if  it 
bciongs  to  more  than  one,  mi  apostroplie  shoula  follow  the  s,  tlius  ;  "  Brothers' 
estate. "  Mistakes  of  tliis  sort  often  occur ;  hence  you  perceive  the  importance, 
in  writing,  of  attending  to  the  subject  of  grammar. 

"  Mans'  happiness." 

348.  Incorrect,  because  mans'  is  in  the  possessive  case,  sin- 
gular number,  and,  therefore,  the  apostrophe  should  be  placed 
before  the  s,  according  to  the  observations  above,  and  Art.  338. 

Will  you  rppcnt  the  rule   for  tlio  pos-  Why  cannot  you  tell  ? 

•e?eiv(j  cHse  ?  Rule  I.  If  only  one   brother    is   meant,    how 

In  the  senlcncn,   "John's  wife  return-  should  the  npostropho  be  placed  .'    How, 

ed,"   will  you  parse  John's  1    wife?  re-  if  more  than  one  ? 

turved  ?  34ri.  In   the  phrase,   "  Mans'    happiness," 

Why  is  Jukii's  in  the  possessive  case  ?  why  is  it  incorrect  for  the   apostrophe  to 

337  follow  the  si  348. 

What  kin:l  of  a  verb  is  relumed  ?  34C.  What  is  the  rule  for  forming  the   pos- 

Whv  ?  l'i.1.  sossive  case  of  nouns  ?  338. 

In  what  case  is  leife  ?  346.  Will  you  now  parse  man's? 

Why?. 335.  We  spell  the  possessive   case   of  man 

5:5"  The  pupil  way  next  parse  the  addi-  thus,  m-a-7i-(apostrophe)  «  ;  will    you    in 

tAonal  erercUes  in  syntax.  like  manner  spoil  liie  possessive  of  John  ? 

In  the  phrase,  "  Brothers  estate,"  does  WilHam  ?  Riijus  ?  iconienl  boys? 

one  brother,  or  more  than  one,  »wn  thn  ^f^"  The  remahiing  exercises  are  te  he 

estate  ?  347.  corrected  as  well  as  parsed. 

(1 )  AcOTe-traBsiUve  verb.    (JS.)  AdJtcUre,  wi  Iselongs  to  rr-varrl,  hy  Rule  IT. 


ARTICLES  49 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  PAUSED  AND  COUUECTED, CONTINUED. 

*«  Johns  son  departed."  •'  I  discovered  Marias  faults." 

"  Susans  sister  will  learn."  "  Susan  made   little  Harriets  bon- 

"  Charles  task  is  too  diincult."  net." 

«« I  have  read  Willi's  poem.."  "  Johnson  makes  mens  shoes." 

EXERCISES  TO  BE  WRITTEN.* 
349.  Will  you  write  down  two  sentences,  each  containing  a 
proper  noun,  as  for  example,  "  William  learns  grammar"  ?  One, 
containing  a  common  noun  ?  One,  containing  a  noun  of  the  third 
person  singular?  One,  of  the  third  person  plural,  and  in  tlie 
nominative  case  ?  One,  liaving  a  noun  of  the  second  person 
singular  and  of  the  feminine  gender  ?  One,  having  a  noun  tlie 
name  of  some  article  of  food  .'  One,  liaving  a  noun  the  name  of 
some  quality  ?  One,  having  a  noun  of  multitude  ?  One,  having 
your  own  name  associated  with  book;  as,  "John  Grisconi'a 
book" .' 


XXIX.     OF  ARTICLES. 

350.  Articles  are  words  put  before  nouns,  to  point  them 
out,  or  to  limit  their  meaning. 

351.  There  are  two  articles,  a  or  an,  and  tJie. 

352.  A  or  an  is  called  the  indefinite  article. 

353.  The  is  called  the  definite  article. 

354.  The  article  a  is  called  indcliniie,  because  it  means  no  particular  per- 
son or  thing  ;  as,  "  a  house,"  "  a  man,"  that  is,  any  house,  any  man.  Tlic  article 
</ie  is  called  definite,  because  it  means  some  particular  person  or  thing  ;  a.s, 
"  the  house,"  "  the  man,"  meaning'  some  particular  house,  some  particular  man. 

353.  A  becomes  a?i  belbre  a  vowel,  and  before  a  silent  A  ,  as,  "  an  acorn," 
"an  hour."  But  if  the  A  be  sounded,  the  a  only  is  used  j  a-s,  "a  hand,"  "a 
heart :"  except  when  the  word  before  which  the  article  is  placed,  has  its  ac- 
cent on  the  second  syllable  ;  as,  "  an  heroic  action,"  "an  historical  account." 

356.  Before  words  beginning  with  u  long,  a  is  used  instead  of  an ;  as,  "  a 
union,"  "  a  university,"  "  a  useful  thing." 

357.  A  is  also  used  for  an  before  the  word  one,  because,  in  pronouncing 
one,  we  sound  it  as  if  written  wun. 

358.  The  article  a  or  an  means  one ;  as,  "  an  ounce,"  "  a  pound,"  that  is, 
one  ounce,  one  pound. 

XXIX.     What  is  an  article  ?  350.  But  if  the  h  is  sounded,  which  is  to  be 

What  does  definite  mcim  .'  78.  used  '  3.5.';.  Givo  an  e.xainplo. 

What  is  the  called  ?  353.     Why  !  354.  What  e.\ception  to  this  f  355.   Give  an 

Give  an  example.  exiimple. 

What  does  indefinite  mean  .'  81.  Do  we  any,  "  a  union,"   or   "  an  un- 

What  is  a  or  an  called  ?  352.     Why  .'  ion"  ?  "  n  university,"  or  "  an  univer- 

354.  Give  an  example.  sity"  .'  Why  i'  356. 

How  many  articles    are   there  .'    351.  Do  we  say,  "  a  one,"   or  "  an  not"  i 

Name  them.  Why  ?  357. 

When  does  a  become  an  7    355.    Give  What  does   the   article  a  moan  .'  358 

an  example.  Give  an  example. 

»  EiUm-  OB  *.  ihle  er  in  i  nnall  nanuicript  book  kept  for  the  purpose. 

5 


90  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

RVZ.I;   zi. 

The  indefinite  article  a  or  an  belongs  to  nouns  of  the  sin- 
gular number. 

RUI.1:  III, 

The  definite  article  the  belongs  to  nouns  of  the  singular 
or  plural  number. 

359.  Exception.  When  the  adjectives  few,  great  many,  dozen,  hun- 
dred, thousand,  &c.  come  between  the  noun  and  article,  the  noun  to 
which  the  indefinite  article  belong^s,  is  plural ;  as,  "  a  few  men,"  "  a  "Teat  ma 
ny  men."  " 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"  The  bird  flics  swiftly  P 

360.  The  is  a  definite  article,  and  belongs  to  hird,  accord- 
ing to  Rule  III. 

Bird  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  common  gender,  the  third 
PERSON,  singular  NUMBER,  and  in  the  nominative  case  to  flits. 
by  Rule  VI. 

Flits  is  an  active-intransitive  verb,  indicative  mood, 
PRESENT  TENSE—"  1.  I  fly  ;  2.  You  fly  ;  3.  He  flies,  or  bird 
flies" — made  in  the  third  person,  singular,  and  agrees  with 
hird,  by  Rule  VII. 

Svnftly  is  an  adverb,  qualifying/te«,  by  Rule  IX. 

EXERCISES    IN    SYNTAX     CONTINUED. 

"  The  boys  have  arrived   seasona-  "  Children  attend  the  school." 

bly."  "  William  founded  a  university." 

"  Galileo  invented  the  telescope."  "  The  grass  is  green." 

"  The  boy  had  an  ulcer."  "  Farmers    carry    hay    into    the 
*'  William   gave    an  historical  ac-  barn." 

count  (1.)  of  the  transaction."  "  The  good   scholar  obeys  his   in- 
••  Columbus  discovered  the  conti-  structer." 

nent  of  America." 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 
"  He  had  a  idcerJ' 

361.  Incorrect,  becanse  we  use  an  before  a  vowel,  excefpt « 
long  :  a  should,  therefore,  be  an  ;  thui,  "  an  ulcer." 

SENTENCES    TO    BE    PARSED    AND    CORRECTED,  CONTINUED. 
"  A  enemy  approaches."  "  Three     barley    corns     make     a 

"  James  procured  a  inksfamd."  inch." 

"  He  conferred  a  honor."  "  Eight  drams  make  a  ounce." 

"  An  unit  figure  occupies  the  low-     "  They  formed  an  union." 

est  place  in  whole   numbers."     "  He  quoted  an  hard  saying." 
"  Thomas  lias  lost  an  horse." 


What  is  the  rule  for  the    indullnito  ;ir-  ^fCT  The  remaining  exercises  are  next  to 

tide  .'  Rule  II.  be  pars-edfmm  the  book. 

What  exception  to  this  rule  .'  359.  Would  joii  sav,  "  a  ulcer,"  or  "  an  ul- 

What  is  the  rule  for   the  indefinite  ar-  cer"  .■'  Why  ?   ."iOI. 

tide  .'  Rule  III.  ^  The  pupil  should  now  take  tA«  re- 
in the  sentence,  "  The  bird  flies  swift-  maining  sentences  to   be    corrected.      Ht 

ly,"  how  do  you  parse  the  ?  bird  7  flies  ?  should  be  required  tt  parse  as  well  at  cor- 

noiftiy  1  360.  rect  them. 


(1.)  Apply  Rult  Vin. 


ADJECTIVES.  51 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 
."62.  Will  you  write  down  two  sentences,  using  in  one  the  definite, 
and  in  the  other  the  indefinite  article  ?  One,  containing  a  correctly  used 
before  m  long  ?    One,  having  a  delinite  article  correctly  used  before  the 
consonant  h ? 

Will  you  write  two  nouns,  the  names  of  different  things  in  the 
school-room  ?  Two,  the  names  of  different  cities?  One  sentence,  hav- 
ing a  proper  noun  used  as  a  common  noun  ? 


XXX.     OF  ADJECTIVES. 

363.  An  adjective  is  a  word  joined  to  a  noun,  to  de- 
scribe or  define  it  ;   as,  "  An  obedient  son." 

364.  In  English,  an  adjective  is  varied  only  to  express  the 
degrees  of  comparisou.  There  are  three  degrees  of  com- 
parison— the  positive,  the  comparative,  and  the  superlative. 

365.  The  positive  degree  simply  describes  an  object ;  as, 
"  John  is  good." 

366.  The  comparative  degree  increases  or  lessens  the  pos- 
itive in  meaning;  as,  "  William  is  better  than  John."  It 
implies  a  comparison  between  two. 

367.  The  superlative  degree  increases  or  lessens  the  posi- 
tive to  the  highest  or  lowest  degree ;  as,  "  Thomas  is  the 
best;"  "  Walter  is  the  worst." 

368.  It  implies  a  comparison  between  three  or  more. 

369.  The  simple  word,  or  jjositive,  if  a  monosyllable,  (1.)  becomes  the 
comparative  by  adding  r  or  er,  aiid  the  superlative  by  addjng  st  or  est,  to  the 
end  of  it ;  as,  wise,  wiser,  wisest ;  great,  greater,  greatest. 

370.  Ill  words  of  more  than  one  syllable,  the  comparison  is  usually  made 
by  placing  the  adverbs  mure  and  most  before  the  positive;  as,  benevolent,  more 
benerolent,  most  benerolent. 

371.  The  comjjarison  is  sometimes  formed  by  the  adverbs  less  ajid  least  ; 
as,  vxise,  less  wise,  least  wise. 

372.  Dissyllables  (2.)  ending  in  y,  as,  happy,  lovely,  and  in  le,  after  a  mute, 
(3.)  as,  able,  ample,  or  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  as,  discreet,  polite,  easily 

XXX.     What  is  the  nieanins  of   the        What  does  it  imply  ?  368. 
word  adjectiiie  ?  95.  What  is  a  monosyllable  ?  3C9. 

What  is  an  adjective  .'  363.     Give  an         How  are  monosyllables  compared  ?  369. 

example.  Give  an  example. 

How  many  degrees  of  comparison  are        How  are  dissyllables  compared?  372. 
there  ?  364.  What  efToct  do  less  and  least  have  on 

Will  you  name  them?  adjoctives  ?  371. 

What   does  the   positive   degree   do?        What  is  a  dissyllable  ?  3753. 
365.     (iive  an  example.  Will  you  spell  the  comparative  and  au- 

What  does  the  comparative  degree  do?  perlative  ilegrses   of   able!  lovely 'i  arUf 

SG'i.     (Jive  an  example.  plel  dlicreet  ?  polite?  372. 

What  does  it  imply?  366.  Which  are  the  mutes?  372. 

What  does  superlatioe  mean?  103.  How  do  words  of  more  than  two  «ylla- 

What  does  the  superlative  degree  do  ?  bios  almost  invariably  form  their  compar- 

367,    Give  an  example.  ison  ?  372. 

y,)  A  word  of  one  %y,lablo.  (J.)  A  word  of  two  6jrll»blef. 

(30  ^|  k,  f,  i,  aud  c  and  i  hard,  are  mutei. 


5ii  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

admit  of  er  and  est ;  as,  Jiappier,  liappiest ;  abler,  ablest,  &c.  Words  of  more 
than  two  syllal)les  hardly  ever  admit  of  tliese  lerminaiions. 

373.  In  some  words,  the  superlative  is  formed  by  adding  the  adverb  most 
to  tlie  end  of  them  ;  as,  7iethermosi,  utiermost,  uppermost. 

374-.  Some  adjectives,  having  in  themselves  a  superlative  signification,  do 
not  admit  of  comparison  ;  as,  extreme,  perfect,  riglu,  wro7ig,  injinite,  ceaseless, 
supreme,  onniipolcnt,  eternal. 

375.  By  adding;  ish  to  adjectives,  we  have  a  slight  degree  of  comparison 
below  the  posilive  ;  as,  black,  blackish;  salt,  saltish. 

376.  Very  expresses  a  ciegrcc  of  quality,  but  not  the  highest ;  as,  "  good," 
"  very  good."' 

377. , Words  used  in  counting  and  numbering  are  called  numeral  adjectives ; 
pS,  one,  two,  three ;  Jjrst,  second,  third.     These  adjectives  are  not  compared. 

378.  An  adjective  put  without  a  noun,  with  the  definite  article  before  it, 
becomes  a  noun  in  sense  and  meaning,  and  may  be  considered  as  such  in  pars- 
ing )  as,  "  Providence  rewards  the  good,  and  punishes  the  bad." 

IIXTI.Z;  iv. 

Adjectives  belong  to  the  nouns  tvhich  they  describe, 

•     EXERCISES  IN   SYNTAX. 
"John  is  sincere." 
879.  John  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  third  person,  sikgo- 

LAR  NUMBER,  MASCULINE    GENDER,  aild  in  the  NOMINATIVE   CASE 

to  is,  by  Rule  VI. 

Is  is  a  NEUTER  VERB,  in  the  indicative  mood,  present 
TENSE — "  1.  I  am ;  2.  You  are  ;  3.  He  or  John  is," — made  in  the 
THIRD  person  SINGULAR,  and  agrees  with  John,  according  to 
UULE  VII. 

Si7ice7-6  is  an  adjective, — "  sincere,  more  sincere,  most  sin- 
tere," — made  in  tlie  positive  degree,  and  belongs  to  John,  by 
Rule  IV. 

EXERCISES    IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 

"  You  are  studious."  "  One  man  has  come." 

"  John  is  more  studious."  "  Two  men  have  departed." 

"  William  is  most  studious."  "  Twenty  men  will  sail." 

"  Mar3'  is  intelligent."  "  James  wrote  liis   ncime  on  the  first 

"  James  is  active."  page." 

"  Thomas  is  less  active."  "  Here  comes  a  great  man." 

"  Charles  is  happy."  "  Here  comes  a  greater  man." 

"  Mary  is  tall.     Susan  is  teillcr."  "  Here  comes  the  greatest  man." 

"  No  composition  is  perfect."  "  The  first  fleet  contained  five  hundred 

"  Religion  makes  its  votaries  happy."  men." 

Is  perfect  compared  .'  Why  ?  374.  pcrlative  degrees  of  good  1  ill  7  much  ? 

Will  yovi  naiiiR  several  others  that  are  liulel 

not  coinpariil .'  374.  When  is  an  adjective  to  be  considered 

How  is  the  superlative  formed  in  the  a  noun  ?  378. 

■word  upper  !  373.  What  is  the  rule  for  the  adjective  .'  IV. 

AVhat  is  the  effect  of  ish  added  to  ad-  In  the  phrase,  "John  is  sincere,"  how 

jectives.'  37.5.     Give  an  oxaniplc.  do  you  parse  Johnl   is  1    sincere?    379. 

What  is  the  force  of  very  iu  compari-  Why  is  sincere  in  the  positive  degree  .' 

Bon  ?  376.  365.     Why  do  you  call  is  a  neuter  verb  ? 

What  are   numeral    adjectives.''    377.  157. 

Give  an  example.     Arc  they  compared  ?  ^jCf^^t  the  pnpil  next  take  IM  exercises 

^77.  that  follow,  and  parse  as  before 

WiU  you  spell  the  comparative  and  su- 


l»RONOUN3.  98 

XXXI. 

380.  Double  comparatives  and  superlatives,  since  they  add 
nothing  to  the  sense,  should  be  avoided  ;  as,  tvorser,  mori  vnser^ 
&c. ;  also,  lesser,  supremest,  inost  injinite,  &c. 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

Q.  Will  you  write  down  two  sentences,  each  containing  a  different 
adjective  in  the  positive  degree  ?  Two,  with  adjectives  in  the  compara- 
tive degree  ?  Two,  with  adjectives  in  the  supei-lalive  degree  ? 

Q.   Will  you  supply  such  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences  as 

will  make  sense  ?     "  A  boy  studies  his  lesson."     "  A  boy 

deserves  punishment."  "  A man  helps  the man."  "  Mer- 
chants  own   ships."       "  The   instructor   loves   scholars." 

"  WilUam  is  a  scholar,  Rufus  is  a one,  but  Thomas  is  the 

one  that  1  ever  saw." 


XXXII.     OF  PRONOUNS. 

381.  A  PRONOUN  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun,  to 
avoid  a  disagreeable  repetition  of  the  noun. 

382.  A  PERSONAL  PRONOUN  is  SO  Called,  because  it  invari- 
ably represents  the  same  person.  There  are  five  personal 
pronouns — I,  thou  or  you,  he,  she,  it.  They  have  per- 
son, number  and  case,  like  nouns ;  and  those  of  the  third 
person  have  gender  also. 

383.  /  is  the  first  person,  thoii  the  second,  he,  she  or  it,  the 
third.     He  is  masculine,  she  is  feminine,  and  it  is  neuter. 

384.  Pronouns,  like  nouns,  have  three  cases — the  nomi- 
native, the  possessive  and  the  objective  ;  and  two  numbers — 
the  singular  and  plural. 

386.  Mine  and  thine,  instead  of  my  and  thy,  were  formerly  used  in  the 
solemn  style,  before  nouns  and  adjectives  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  silent  A; 
as,  "  Blot  out  all  mine  iniquities." 

XXXI.     Is  it  correct  to  say,  "A  lesser  XXXIl.      What   does  the   word  pro- 

evil.'"     Why  not?  380.  noun  signify  ?   I'JO. 

Will  you  correct  the  followin<;  inaccu-  What  is  a  jiroiioiin  .'  3Sl. 

racies  in  comparison  as  I  rend  them  to  Why  is  a  personal  pronoun  so  called  / 

you .'  382. 

"  He  is  intelligcnter."  How  many  personal  pronouns  are  there, 

"  She  is  the  most  wisest."  and  what  are  they  !  382. 

"  A  worser  evil."  *    Why  is  this  numher  said  to  include  all 

"  William  is  a  bad  boy  ;  Joseph  is  a  the  pronouns .'  134. 

worser  one."  Which  is  the  first  person.'  the  second? 

"  He  gave  a  more  stronger  proof  of  the  the  third  ?  383. 

fact  than  the  other."  To  which  of  the  pronouns  do  we  apply 

"  The  pleasures  of  the  mind  are  mora  gender  ?  383. 

(1.)  preferable  than  those  of  the  body."  Why  is  not  gender  applied  to  the  first 

"  That    table  is  round,    but  this    is  a  and  second  persons  i"   130. 

rounder  one,  and  that  is  the  roundest  of  Which  is  masculine  ?  383.  which  fem- 

tho  three."  inine  ?  383.  which  neuter  ?  383. 

"  This  is  more  square."  How  many  cases  have  pronouns,  and 

"A  more  greater  concern."  what  are  they  .'  384. 

"  The  most  fairest  of  all  the  daughters  How  many  numbers  .'  384. 

of  Eve."  Will  you  decline  /?  thot.       a  7  she  1 

"  His  mother's  extremest  joy."  it  1  127. 


(I.)  foT  man  preferaliU  than,  read  pr^'vaMc  <o. 

5  * 


14 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


XXXIII.      COMPOUND  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

386.  Compound  personal  pronouns  are  formed  by  adding 
the  word  self,  in  the  plural  selves,  to  the  simple  pronouns,  as 
himself,  themselves,  &c. 

PLURAL. 

Ourselves. 


PERSON. 

CASE. 

SINGULAR. 

First 

Nom. 

Myself, 
Wanling. 

Pass. 

Ob/. 

Mjsclf, 

Secetid. 

Nom. 

Foss. 
ObJ. 

Thyself,  or 
Yourself, 

Thyself,  or 

Yourself, 

Third. 

Nom. 
Pass. 
ObJ. 

Himself, 

Himself, 

Nom. 

Herself, 

Pass. 

ObJ. 

Herself, 

Norn. 

Itself, 

Pass. 
ObJ. 

Itself, 

Ourselves. 

Yourselves. 


Yourselves. 
Themselves. 


Themselves. 
Themselves. 

Themselves. 
Themselves. 

Themselves. 


auiiE  V. 

Pronouns  must  agree  with  the  nouns  for  which  they 
stand,  in  gender,  numher  and  person. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 
"  John  found  his  knife. ^^ 
387.  John  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  masculine  gender,  the 

IHIRD    PERSON,     SINGULAR    NUMBER,    and     NOMINATIVE    CASE    tO 

found,  by  Rule  VI. 

Found  is  an  active-transitive  verb,  in  the  indicative 
MOOD,  imperfect  TENSE — "  1.  I  found ;  2.  You  found;  3.  He 
or  John  found" — made  in  the  third  person  singular,  and 
agrees  with  John,  by  Rule  VII. 

His  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person  singu- 
ear,  masculine  gender,  and  agrees  with  John,  according  to 
Rule  V.;  in  the  possessive  case,  and  governed  by  knife,  by 
Rule  I. 

Knife  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person  singular, 
neuter  gender,  the  objective  case,  and  governed  hy  found, 
accordinij  to  Rule  VIII. 


Of  what  number  and  person  is  viine  ? 
ours  ?  me  1  we  7  they  1  thine  ?  you  ? 
ijours  ?  127. 

Of  what  gender,  number  and  person  ia 
he  ?  she  7  if» 

or  what  number,  person  and  case  is 
tJtey  ?  ours  ?  his  ?  hers  ?  mine'7 

In  what  stylo  wera  mim  and  thine  for- 
merly used  i  385. 

XXXIII.  How  are  the  compound  per- 
Eonal  pronouns  formed  ?  386, 


What  is  the  rule  for  the  agreement  of 
personal  pronouns  in  the  phrase,  "  JoKn 
found  hia  knife"  ?     V. 

How  do  you  parse  John  ?  387. 

Will  you  parse  John  in  the  phrase, 
"  John  found  his  knife"  ?  387. 

Will  you  parse  found  ?  his  7  hiife  7 
387. 

Vf!^Thelearner  should  next  parse  the  re- 
raaining  exercises  in  Syntax  from,  the  book 
0,nd  then  take  the  exercises  to  be  tcriiten 


PRONOUNS.  55 

EXERCISES    IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 

1. 

"  James  obtained  his  request."  •'  Ye  despise  reproof." 

"  I  will  assist  you."    ;'  "  They  mend  their  pens." 

"  He  will  receive  his  reward."  "  Mary  tore  her  handkerchief." 

"  She  misused  him."  "  Virtue  has  its  reward." 

"  Sin  ruins  its  votaries."  "  She  deceived  them." 

2.  . 

■  An  indulgent  father  will  reprove    "  John  is  in  distress,  and   I   will 

his  son  when  (I.)  he  deserves  assist  him." 

it."  "  I  found  Mary  and  her  mother  in 

••  A  dutiful  son  gladdens  the  hearts  trouble,  and  (2  )  comforted  (3.) 

of  his  parents."  them." 

EXERCISES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

Q.  Will  you  compose  two  sentences,  each  having  a  different  personal 
Dronoun  of  the  first  person  .'  One,  having  a  pronoun  of  the  first  per- 
son plural  .' 

Q.  Will  you  fill  up  the  following  sentences  with  suitable  pronouns, 
^0  as  to  make  sense  ?  "  —  lost  my  hat,  but  found  —  again."  "  Let 
Harriet  have  —  book,  for  —  will  need  —  to  get  her  lesson."  "  The 
travellers  lost  —  way,  and  the  boys  conducted  —  to  —  homes." 

Q.  Will  you  fill  up  the  following  broken  sentences  with  suitable 

words  to  make  sense  ?     "  Intemperance evil."     "  Washington 

father  of  his  ."       "  Columbus America."       "  Bostou 

inhabitants."     "  The ocean  is  miles  wide."     " ■ 

—  first  man." 


XXXIV.     OF  ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS. 

388.  In  the  sentence,  "  Both  wealth  and  poverty  are  temptations  ;  that 
tends  to  excite  pride,  this  discontent ;"  you  perceive  that  the  word  that  repre- 
sents wealth,  and  the  word  this  poverty.  Tliis  and  that  do,  therefore,  resem 
ble  pronouns,  and  may,  for  this  reason,  be  called  pronouns. 

339.  When  I  say,  "  This  house  is  mhie,  that  barn  is  yours,"  tlie  words  this 
aud  thai  are  joined  to  noiuis  like  adjectives,  to  define  or  specity  them  :  tliey 
may,  on  tliis  account,  be  called  adjectives. 

390.  Adjective  pronouns,  then,  are  words  that  resemble 
both  pronouns  and  adjectives.  These  pronouns  are  some- 
times called  pronominal  adjectives,  or  specifying  adjectives. 

391.  The  ADJECTIVE  pronouns  may  be  divided  into  three 
sorts — the  distributive,  the  demonstrative,  and  the  indefinite. 

392.  The  distributive  are  those  that  relate  to  persons  oc 
things,  taken  separately  and  singly. 

XXXIV.      What    are   adjective  luo-  Ono  in  which  they  resemble  adjectives  ? 

nouns  >  390.  389. 

Why  are  they  so  called  1  388,  389.  Into   how  many  Bortis  may  theeo  pro- 

By  what  other  name  have  these  pro-  nouns  be   divided,  and  what  are  tlioy  .' 

nouns  been  called?  390.  391. 

Will  you  give  an  example   in  which        What  is  a  distributive  pronoun  ?  392. 
these   v.-ords  rcsorablo   pronouns  ?    388. 

(J.)  Adverb.  ^2.)  Conjuucti  :u.  (3.)  Apijly  Rule  XI. 


56  ENGLISH   GRAMMAIt 

393.     DISTRIBUTIVE  (1.)  PRONOUNS. 
Each,  every,  either,  and  sometimes  neither. 

394.  Each  relates  to  two  or  more  persons  or  things,  taken  separatel}' ;  cis 
"  Each  of  his  brothers  is  doiiig^  well." 

395.  Every  relates  to  several  persons  or  things,  and  signifies  each  one  of 
them,  taken  separately  5  as,  "  Ex^eTy  man  must  account  for  himself." 

396.  EiTHKR  relates  to  two  persons  or  things  only,  taken  separately,  and 
signifies  the  one  or  the  other  ;  as,  "  I  have  not  seen  either."  Hence  to  say, 
"Either  of  the  three,"  is  incorrect. 

397.  Neither  means  not  either;  that  is,  not  one  nor  the  other;  as, 
"■Neither  of  my  friends  was  there." 

398.  The  demonstrative  (2.)  pronouns  are  those  which 
precisely  point  out  the  tilings  to  which  they  relate. 

S99.     DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 
Si?ig.  Plu. 

This,  These. 

That,  Those. 

Former,  Former. 

Latter,  Latter. 

400.  This  and  these  refer  to  the  nearest  persons  or  things, — that  aiid  those  to 
llic  most  distant ;  as,  "These  gloves  are  superior  to  those.  "  Both  wealth  and 
poverty  are  temptations  ;  tluxt  tends  to  excite  pride,  this  discontent." 

40L  The  indefinite  are  those  that  refer  to  things  in  an 
indefinite  or  general  manner. 

INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS. 
402.  Some,    other,    any,    one,  all,  such,  none.      Of 
these  pronouns,  one  and  other  are  declined  like  nouns.     An- 
other is  declined  in  the  singular,  but  it  wants  the  plural. 

tiing.  Phi. 

403.  Norn.  Other,  Others. 
Pass.  Other's,  Others'. 
ObJ.                      Other,  Others. 

Ring.  Plu. 

404.  Nom.  One,  Ones. 
Poss.  One's,  Ones'. 
Obj.                     One,  Ones. 

We  say,  "  This  book,"  but  "  These  books  ;"  also,  "  One  man,"  "  Twenty 
men  :"  hence, 

405.  Note  L  Adjective  pronouns  and  numerals  must 
agree  in  number  with  the  nouns  to  which  they  belong. 

Why  is  it  so  called  .'  ^93.  Wliich  are  singular  ?  399.  Wliich  plu- 

VVhich  are  they  ?  :i93.  ral  ?  399. 

Wliat  doea   e.acli  refer  to  ?  394.  Give          What  do  this  and  these  refer  to  .'  400. 

(in  o.\ainj)le.  What  do  tAaf  and  tAose  refer  to.'    Give 

What  does  cucrj/ relate  to  .'  395.  Give      an  example.  400. 

nil  example.  What  does  indefinite  mean  ?  8]. 

What  does  ettAer  relate  to?  39fi.  Give          \Mutt  is  an  indefinite  pronoun  .''  401. 

un  example.  Wliich  are  they  .'  402. 

What  does  neither  inenn  .'  397.  Will  you  decline  uther  ?  403. 

What  does  demoTistrative  mean  .'  39S.             Will  you  decline  one!  404. 

What    are   demonstiative    jironouiis  ?         What  note  do  you  apply  in  parsing  ad- 

398.  jective  pronouns?  Note  I. 

Which  arc  they  ?  399. 

(1.)  .So  called  from  distribtdt.  to  divide  ainmig  several. 
(2.)  So  called  from  detnwistTatej  to  prove  or  show  precisely. 


rRONOUNS.  57 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 
"  These  tivo  books  belong  to  me." 

406.  These  is  an  aujective  imionoun  of  the  demonstrative 
kind,  in  the  ri,URAL  numbeii,  and  belongs  to  books,  according  to 
Note  I. 

l\vo  is  a  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVE,  and  belongs  to  hooks,  by  Note  I. 
Books,  belong,  Sic.  arc  parsed  as  before. 

EXERCISES    IN     PARSING    CONTINUED. 

"  Every  man  performs  Ills  part  in  "  Tliese  men  might  remain  with 

creation."  us." 

"  Each  man  arrived  at  his  station."  "Those    men    make     many  pre- 

"  Either  party  can  repair  the   in-  ,        tences  to  religion." 

jury."  "  All  rational  beings  desire  happi- 

"  Some    persons    cannot    acquire  uess." 

wealth."  "  By  application  almost  any  boy 

"  Many  people  obtain  riches  with  may     acquire    an    honorable 

apparently  little  exertion."  rank  in  liis  class." 

"  One  boy  labors  for  his  improve-  "  Good   and   virtuous    men    will, 

ment."  sooner  (1.)  or  later  (1.),  attaia 

"  This  man  neglects  his  affairs."  to  happiness." 

"  The  old  bird  feeds  her  young  ones.'''' 

407.  Ones  is  an  indefinite  pronoun,  representing  birds  ;  in 

the  COMMON    GENDEH,  THIIiD   PERSON  PLURAL,    in  the   OBJECTIVE 

case,  and  governed  by  feeds,  agreeably  to  Rule  VIII. 

EXERCISES    IN     SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 
"One  boy  influences  many  oth-    others  spend  their  time  in  idleness; 
ers."  the  former  will  receive  praise,  the 

"  None  act  their  part  too  well."        latter  censure." 
"  Some  scholars  study  diligently  ; 

We  cannot  say,  "  Them  run,"  but  '•'  Tlicy  run"  :  hence, 

Note  II.  When  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  the  subject  of  the 
verb,  it  should  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

It  is  very  common  for  persons  in  conversation  to  say,  "  Them  books," 
"  Them  knives,"  &.c.  instead  of  "  Those  books,"  "  Those  knives,"  &c.  The 
incorrectness  here  alluded  to  consists  in  substituting  a  personal  in  the  place  of 
an  adjective  pronoun  :  hence, 

Note  III.  The  pronoun  them  should  not  be  used  in  the 
place  of  these  or  tJiosc. 

Ill  the  phrase,  "  These  two  books,"         "  Them  will  go." 
&c.  will  you  parse  tJicsc'!  two  1  403.  "  Him  and  mo  went  to  church." 

Will  you  now  take  the  book,  and  parse         "  Art  thee  well  .'" 
the  remaining  exercises  under  Note  I  ?  "  Him  who  is  diligent  will  improve." 

In  the  phrase,  "  The  old  bird  feeds  her         Would  you  say,   "  Them  knives,"  or 

young  ones,"  will  you  pass  07ies?  407.  "  7'Acsc  knives"  ?  Why.''  III. 

Will  you  correct  by  Note  I.  the  Ibllow-  In  wliat  does  the  incorrectness  con- 
ing examples,  as  I  read  them  to  you  .'  sist  ?  III. 

"  Ho  will  not  come  this  two  hours."  Will  you  correct  the  following  exproa- 

"  I  dislike  those  sort  of  books."  sions  .' 

"  I  have  two  canes  ;  you  may  have  any         "  Them  boys  are  very  idle." 
of  Oiem."  "  Bring  me  tliem  pens." 

Do  wc  say, "  They  run,"  or  "  Them        "  Which  of  them  throe  things  do  you 

run"?  Why.'  Note  II.  prefer?" 

Will  you  now  correct,  by  Note  II.  the         ^^fCj'The  pupil  iriay  next  take  tlie  eittr- 

foUowing  examples  as  I  road  them  to  you.'  cises  to  be  written. 

(1.)  Adverb. 


58  KNGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

Q.  Will  you  compose  two  sentences,  each  having  a  different  adjective 
pronoun  ?  One,  having  a  demonstrative  pronoun  ?  One,  having  an  in- 
detinite  pronoun  used  as  a  noun  ? 

Q.  Will  you  till  up  with  pronouns  suitable  to  make  sense  the  follow- 
ing phrases  ?  "  When  Harriet  found  —  book,  —  tore  — ,and  then  flung 
—  away."     "  —  man  likes  —  farm,  —  merchandise," 

Q.  Will  you  compose  a  proper  example  under  Rule  I.?  One  under 
Rule  II.  ?  Rule  III.  ?  Rule  IV.  ?  Rule  V.  ?  Rule  VI.  ? 


XXXV.     OF  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

408.  In  the  sentence,  "  That  man  is  happy,  who  lives  virtuously,"  tha 
word  who  is  a  pronoun,  because  it  stands  for  a  nouii  (the  noun  nuni),  and  it  is 
a  relative,  because  it  relates  or  refers  to  this  noun  in  die  same  sentence  :  hence, 

409.  A  relative  pronoun  is  a  word  that  usually  stands  for 
some  noun  before  it  in  the  same  sentence. 

410.  There  are  three  relative  pronouns,  viz. 

411.  Wno,  WHICH,  and  that. 

412.  W/io  is  used  in  speaking  of  persons  ;  as,  "  The  man 
who  came." 

413.  Which  is  used  in  speaking  of  animals  or  things  ;  as, 
"  The  bird  which  sings,"  "  The  tree  which  I  planted." 

41't.  Which,  however,  is  used  in  speaking  of  persons,  when  we  vnsh  to  dis- 
tinguish one  of  two  individuals,  or  a  particular  person  among  many  others  ; 
as,  "  Which  of  the  two  is  he  7  "  Whicli  of  them  has  gone  V 

415.  Thctt,  as  a  relative,  is  often  used,  in  speaking  either 
of  persons  or  things,  in  the  place  of  icho  or  which  ;  as, 

"  The  boy  that  reads,"  or,  "  The  lioy  who  reads  ;"  "  The  bird  that  flow,"  or, 
"  The  bird  which  flew ;''  "  The  bench  that  was  made,"  or,  "  The  bench  which 
was  made." 

That  is  used  in  preference  to  who  or  which,  in  the  follo\ving  cases  :— 

1.  In  speaking  botii  of  persons  and  things  ;  as,  "  The  nitui  and  the  boast 
that  I  saw,  perished." 

2.  In  speaking  of  children  ;  as,  "  The  child  that  1  met." 

3.  After  tlie  adjective  same ;  as,  "  He  is  the  same  man  that  we  saw  yester- 
day." 

4.  After  the  superlative  degree ;  as,  "  He  is  the  wisest  man  that  the  world 
ever  produced." 

5.  After  the  relative  who  ;  as,  "  Who  that  reflects." 

415 — 1.  Exception,  iliat,  as  a  relative,  cannot  take  the  preposition  im- 
mediately before  it ;  as,  "  He  is  the  same  man  with  that  you  were  acquainted." 
I'^or  with  that,  read  with  whom,  h  is  remarkable,  however  that,  when  the  ar- 
rangement is  a  little  varied,  the  word  lluxl  admits  the  preposition  ;  as,  "  He  is 
the  same  man  tlial  you  v\erc  acquainted  with."  

XXXV.  In  the  sentence,  "That  man  is  speaking  of  persons  .'     Give  an  example. 

hiippy,  who  lives  virtuously,"  what  part  414. 

of  speech  is  who  f     Why?     408.     What  When  may  «Aa«  be  used  .'  415. 

kind  ?  Why  ?  408.  Is  it  correct  to  say,  "  The  child  who"  .> 

What  is  a  relative  pronoun  .'  409.  Why  not.?  "  Tlie  same  man  who".' Why 

Will  you  name  them  ?  411.  not.'   "  The  wisest  man  which"  ?    Why 

When  do  we  use  jc/io  ?     Give  an  e.\am-  not.'  "  Who,  who  reflects"  .'  Why  not  ? 

pie.  412.  415  ;  1,  2,  3,  4,  5. 

When  do  we  use  wkichl    Give  an  ex-  What  exception  is  mentioned.' 415— 1, 

ample.  413.  Give  an  example.  415 — 1. 
In   what  eases  do  we  use  vhich,    in 


PRONOUNS  59 

416 — 1.  W«  can  saj',  "  1  lie  man  who,"  or  "  The  men  who,"  using  the 
relative  who  in  speaking  eitiier  of  one  man  or  inuro  than  one  I  wlio,  then,  is  ot 
both  numbers,  and  is  tlius  declined  : 

Singular.  Plural. 

Norn.  Wiio,  Wlio. 

Poss.  Whose,  Whone. 

Obj.  Whom.  Wliom. 

417.  Wliich  and  that  are  of  both  numbers,  but  they  are  not  declmed,  ox 
cept  that  whose  is  soineiiuics  used  as  the  possessive  case  of  which;  ais,  "  Is 
theie  any  other  doctrine  whose  followers  are  punished  ?" 

418.  Whose,  used  in  the  manner  last  described,  is  made  to  represent  three 
words  ;  as,  "  Philosophy  whose  end,"  for  "  the  end  of  which." 

419.  Antecedent  sigiiities  going  be/ore. 

420.  The  noim  or  [ironoun  which  goes  before  the  relative,  and  to  which  th« 
relative  refers,  is  tlieruforo  called  the  antecedent  of  the  relative  ;  as,  "  John, 
wlio  has  gone."     Here,  John  is  the  antecedent  of  who. 

421.  When  you  are  told  that  tvho,  which,  and  that  are  relatives,  you 
should  not  get  the  impression  that  the  last  two  are  ;il\vays  relatives  ;  for  tluit  is 
a  relative  only  when  it  is  used  in  the  sense  of  who  or  which  ;  that  is,  when  who 
or  which  may  be  used  in  its  place,  without  destroying  the  sense  ;  as,  "  Here  is 
the  knife  that  I  found,"  which  can  be  altered  to  "  Here  is  the  knife  which  I 
found,"  without  injury  to  the  sense. 

4:TZ.  That,  when  it  points  out  or  specifies  some  particular  person  or  thing, 
is  reckoned  an  adjective  pronoun.  When  not  used  as  a  relative,  nor  aa  an 
adjective  pronoun,  it  is  reckoned  a  conjunction ;  as,  '•  He  studies  that  he 
may  learn." 

423.  Hence  it  appears  that  the  word  that  may  be  used  sometimes  as  a  rela 
live  pronoun,  sometimes  as  an  adjective  pronoun,  and  sometimes  as  a  conjunc 
tion. 

424.  Since  relative  pronouns  stand  for  nouns,  askvell  zs  personal  pronouns 
tliey  should  therefore  agree  with  nouns  in  the  same  particulars  and  by  the  same 
rule.    Rule  V.  will  therefore  apply  to  both. 

EXERCISES  IN   SYNTAX. 

"  That  man  is  happy  who  lives  viriuouslyy 
425.  That  is  a  dkmonstrative  pronoun,  of  the  singular 
NUMBER,  and  belongs  to  man,  by  Note  I. 

JVho  is  a  RELATIVE  PRONOUN,  of  tlie  MASCULINE  GENDER,  THIRD 

PERSON  SINGULAR,  and  agToes  with  man,  by  Rule  V.     It  is  in 
the  NOMINATIVE  CASK  to  Uvts,  accordiug  to  Rule  VI. 

EXERCISKS    IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 
"  That  man  is  fortunate  who  es-    "  1  met  the  same  man  in  the  mar- 
capes  censvire."  ket    to-day    (1.),    that   I    met 
*'  The  girl  whom  1  saw,  perished."  yesterday  in  the  street." 

How  many  numbers  has  «'Ao  ?  41G.  VVlu'n   is  that  an   adjective  pronoun? 

Will  you  decline  it  .'  41f) — I.  Give  an  example.  4^. 

How  many    numbers    have  which    and  When  a  conjunction  .'    Give  an  exam- 

thatl  Are  they  declined  .'  -117.  pie.  4ii2. 

What  exception  to  Ibis  ?  417.  Mow   ninny  different  parts   of  speech 

When  whose  is  useii  as  tbc  possessive  may  that  represent  .'  42-3. 

case  of  which,  bow  many  words  does  it  What  is  the  rule  for  the  agreement  of 

represent  ?  Give  an  example.  418.  relative  pronouns  .'  424. 

What  is   the  meaning  of  antecedent  ?  Will    von  parse   that   in    the    phrase, 

419.  "That  man"  .?  495. 

What  is  the  antecedent  of  a  pronoun  .'  In  the  sentence,  "  That  man  is  happy 

Give  an  example.  420.  who    lives  virtuously,"    will  you  parse 

Is  that  always  a  relative.'  401.  who  ?  425. 

When  is  it  a  relative  .'     Give  an  ex-  Will  you  now  take  the  book,  and  parse 

ample.  421.  the  remaining  exercises  ? 

(1.)  AdtieiU. 


GO  ENGLISH  GIIAMSIAII. 

"  You,  who  came  first,  sl)ould  re-  "  That  liouse,  which  stands  on  the 

tire  first."  hill,  once  (1)  belonged  to  uie." 

"  You  taught  the  boy  whose  hat  I  "  The  boy  whom  I  instruct  learns 

found."  well." 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 
"  The  man  ivhich  I  saw.^^ 
426,  Incorrect ;  because,  in  speaking  of  persons,  tvho,  tohose, 
or  ivho7n  is  generally  to  be  used.     It  should  therefore  read,  "  The 
man  wliom  I  saw," 

SENTENCES    TO    BE    PAftSED    AND    CORRECTED,    CONTINUED. 

"  The  bird  whom  I  killed  had  njade  "  Thou  who  are  in  prosperity  must 
her  nest."  assist  me  in  adversity." 

•'  The  man  which  visited  me  has  "  He  which  shuns  vice  does  gen- 
left  town."  erally  practise  virtue." 

"  That  man  is  happy  whom  is  vir-  "  I,  wlio  lives  by  your  charity, 
tuous."  should  be  grateful." 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

Q.  Will  you  construct  a  sentence  containing  the  relative  toAo  ?  One, 
containing  which  ?   One,  containing  that  ? 

Q.   Will  you  fill  up  the   following  sentences  with  relatives  correctly 

used  ?     "  The  man sins  shall  die."     "  The  boy studies  will 

learn."     "  The   bird sung  so  sweetly  has  flown."     Will  you  fill 

up  the  following  with  one  or  more  words  that  will  make  sense  ?  "  In- 
temperance   evils."     "  If truth sorry." 

Q.  Will  you  embrace  in  different  sentences,  each  of  the  following 
words?  Washingtun*  Columbus,  Captain  Cook,  Indians,  Wisdom, 
Riches,  James  Monroe. 


XXXVI.  OF  COMPOUND  AND  INTERROGATIVE 
PRONOUNS. 

427.  "  I  took  irhat  j'ou  gave  mc." 

"  I  tooli  that  which  you  gave  me." 

"  1  look  ihe  ihhi'X  ivhich  yim  gave  me." 

"  I  took  thot-e  things  vhifh  you  gave  mc." 

428.  By  e.\aniiiiiiig  tlie  foregoing  sentences,  you  will  s«e  that  the  word 
■what,  in  tlic  iirst  example,  means  the  same  as  the  words  in  itafics  in  the  suc- 
cessive ones  :  the  word  ivhut,  then,  is  clearly  a  pronoini ;  ajid  because  it  stands 
for  more  than  one  ux'rH,  it  is  called  a  compound  pronoun.  The  word  before 
the  relative  uhick,  in  the  phrase  "  thai  which,"  or  "  the  thing  which,"  is  the 
antecedent  of  »7i/c/(.     Hen<c, 

429.  What  is  a  compound  relative  pronoun,  including 
both  tlic  antecedent  and  the  relative,  and  is  generally  equiva- 
lent to  THAT  WHICH. 

Instinil  of  saying,  "  Tim  mnri  wliicli  I  toncus  which  moan  the  same  as  "  I  took 

saw,"  u  hnt  shijultl  I  .say  ?  Why  .'  42(i.  wh;it  you  Si've  nm"  .'  427. 

Will  you  correct  and  par.sc  the  roinnin-  VViiat  words,  then,  (Iocs  jc/mi stand  for.' 

ing  exercises,  and  thcii  tuketliu  exercises  42.S. 

to  he  written  ?  Whv  is  ii-lnil.  a  pronoun  ?  42S. 

XXXVI.    Will   yon  repeat  tlinso   sen  Why  a  compound  r^'on-iun  .'  423. 

(1.)  A.lvrrl.. 

*  Thus,  "  WishiDglou  W23  a  true  pa:.'ii.'l,**  kc.     Tlie  ;  ifj'it  tnay  wiilc  si^ocial  satttnccs  on  cnch  word. 


PRONOUNS.  61 

430.  \Vlio,  wi/uV/t,  and  wind  have  somelinics  llie  words  ever  or  soever  an- 
nexed (1.)  to  tliem  :  and  cadi  coaihiiiaiioii  of  this  sorl  is  called  a  coinpouiid 
relaiive  ;  as,  wlioccer,  xchosoevtr,  wliickever,  whidisoever,  &,c.  Tliey  are  not 
olleii  used. 

43J.  \ilio  u'hich,  and  what  are  called  inlcrrogatives,  or  relatives  of  ihc  in- 
terrotrative  kind,  when  ihey  are  useil  in  a.sking__queslions  ;  as,  "  Who  is  he  V 
"  VVliich  is  the  book  .'"  "  What  arc  you  doiiij^  t"  These  relatives,  you  per- 
ceive have  no  antecedents,  but  relate  to  some  word  or  phrase  contained  in 
thtt  lu'isvver,  which  is  called  a  subsequent,  because  it  follows  alter  the  relative  ; 
as  "  Whom  did  you  see  V  Aiis.  "  Joint."  Here  John  is  the  subsequent  to 
which  whom  refers. 

43i.  Hence  it  follows,  that  antecedent  and  snhseqiient  are  opposed  to  each 
otiier  in  meaninj^  ;  iJie  former  s\gmiy\\\g  going  before,  ihe  \ancrjbUowing  after. 

433.  WHietlicr  was  formerly  made  use  of  to  e.xpiess  interrogation  j  as, 
"Wliether  of  these  shall  1  choose?"  but  it  is  now  seldom  used,  the  interrogative 
whicli  supplying  its  place. 

451-.  Which,  what,  and,  as  we  have  alread}'  seen,  tlud,  when  joined  to 
nouns,  are  adjective  pronouns  ;  as,  "  unto  wliich  promise  our  twelve  tribes." 

435.  When  wind  and  whiii:h  arc  joined  to  nouns  in  asking  questions,  they 
are  called  inierro^^ative  adjective  pronouns  ;  as,  •'  Which  horse  did  he  take  V 

436.  In  some  instances,  we  find  wlial  used  in  the  sense  of  an  interjection  j 
as,  "  What  !  take  my  money,  and  then  ray  life  V 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

^'  I  will  leave  what  is  uaehss.^^ 

437.  ^V^lat,  in  the  example  above,  means  the  same  as  "  that  which,"  or 
•'  the  thino-  which"  ;  we  will,  therefore,  in  parsing  it,  bear  in  mind  that  it  has 
the  govennnent  and  agreement  of  two  separate  v.-ords.  We  will  first  parse  it 
as  standing  for  thing,  and  secondly  for  niiich. 

What  is  a  compound  relative  vronou.v,  and  is  equivalent 
to  "  that  which,"  or  "  the  thing  whicli."  In  representing  thhi}^, 
it  may  be  considered  a  pr,oxoun  of  the  third  person  siivcu- 
j.AR,  NEUTER  GENDER,  in  the  oB.JECTivE  CASE,  and  governed  by 
have,  according  to  Rule  VIII. 

What,  in  representing  which,  may  be  considered  a  relative 

PRONOUN    of  the  THIRD    PERSON   SINGULAR,    NEUTER  GENDER,  and 

relates  to  thing  for  its  antecedent,  according  to  Rule  V.  aiid  in 
the  NOMINATIVE  CASE  to  is,  by  Rule  VI. 

Is  is  a  NEUTER  VERB,  in  the  indicative  imood,  present 
tense — "  1.  I  am  ;  9.  You  are;  3.  He  or  u'/n'c/i  is" — made  in  the 
THIRD  PERSON  SINGULAR,  and  agrees  with  which,  the  relative 
part  of  the  pronoun  what,  according  to  Rule  VII. 

Useless  is  an  ad.iective,  in  the  positive  degree,  and  belongs 
to  what,  by  Rule  IV. 

How  may  what  bo  descrii)Otl  .'  429.  When  are  xlwt,  tnkicli,  and  that  a'ljcc- 

Will  you  give  tliroo  examples  of  com-  live  pronouns  ?  Givu  an  example.     43-!. 

pound  pronouns  formed  by  .annexing  erf r  Which  of  tlio  rolalivesi  are  sometimes 

or  joever  7  430.  iiitervogalive  adjective  pronouns  .'  When? 

What  is  the  moaning  oCannezed  ?  430.  43.'). 

WUuii  ax(iw}io,wkUh,  and  wAot  called  When  I  say,  "What!    rob  me  of  niy 

interrcatives  .'  431.  money,  and  then  take  my  life  ?"  in  what 

Wb.it  arc  the  nouns  called,  to  v.'hich  sense  is  k-'/joJ  used .'     436. 

inteiTo-'atives  refer  ?  431.  In  the  sentence,  "  I  will  leave  what  is 

What   ia  the  meaning  of  svhseqncntl  useless,"  how  do  you  parse  whaLl    isl 

432.  useless!    437. 

Why  so  called  ?  431.  What  does  what  stand  for  ?     437. 

In  the  phrase,  "  Wbom  iliil  you  see  .'"  Do  you  parse  it  as  one  word  or  two? 

Arts.    "John";  which  word  is  tho  subse-  What  two.'     437. 

quent  ?  43J.  SfCr"  7'Ae  pupil  may  now  parse  the  re- 

ma'ming  eicerciscs  ou  the  pronoun  what. 

■     '  '"'  ^r!7Tiacerafl(iT\ 


6S  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES    IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 
"  James  will  do  what  Is  proper."       "  William  demands  what  I  cannot 
"  You  heard  what  I  said."  give." 

"  Whatever     improves      delights    "  They  advocate  what  is   excel- 
him."  •  lent." 


XXXVII.     OF  THE  VERB. 

438.  A  VERB  is  a  word  that  expresses  action  or  being. 
Verbs  are  of  three  kinds — active,  passive,  and  neuter. 

439.  An  active  verb  expresses  action,  and  the  actor  is 
always  the  nominative  case  ;  as,  "  John  runs."  Active  verbs 
are  either  transitive  or  intransitive. 

440.  An  active  verb  is  transitive,  when  it  either  has  or 
may  have  an  object  after  it,  on  which  the  action  terminates ; 
as,  "  John  beats  William." 

441.  An  active  verb  is  intransitive,  when  it  neither  has 
nor  can  have  an  object  after  it. 

442.  Passive  means  suffering  or  receiving. 

443.  When  I  say, "  Jolni  is  beaten  by  William,"  is  beaten  is  a  verb,  because 
it  expresses  action ;  cuid  it  is  a  passive  verb,  because  it  expresses  tlie  action 
received  by  John ;  and  if  John  receives  tlie  action,  then  he  is  the  object  of  iti 
hence, 

444.  A  passive  verb  expresses  action  or  effect  received. 

445.  The  object  is  always  its  subject  or  nominative  case. 

446.  Active  nominative,  or  actor,  "  ,Iohn  strikes  William." 

447.  Passive  nominative,  or  object,  "  William  is  struck 
by  John." 

4'i8.  By  examining'  the  foregoing  examples,  you  will  see  that  when  the  verb 
is  active,  its  nominative  is  likewise  active  j  and  when  the  verb  is  passive,  its 
nominative  is  likewise  passive. 

449.  The  passive  voice  is  a  convenient  mode  of  expression  on  occasions 
when  we  wish  to  state  ir)iat  has  been  done,  without  exposing  the  author  ;  thus, 
instead  of  saying-,  "  William  struck  John,"  I  can,  to  avoid  alluding  to  William, 
say,  "John  was  Struck." 

XXXVII.      What   is   the  meaning  of  In   the  example,   "John   ie   beaten  by 

verbl*  Wiiliani,"    which   is  the   verb.'     Why.' 

Why  so  called.'     143.  What  kind.'    Why.'     413. 

What  is  a  verb.'     438.  V^'hich  word  is  the  object  .'  Why  .'  443 

What  is  an  active  verb  ?    ,430.  AVhat,  then,  is  a  passive  verb  .'     444. 

What  is   always  its  nominative.'   Give  VVhicli   is  the  nominative  to   a  passive 

an  example.     430.  verb,  the  agent  or  the  object  ?     445. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  tritiisitivc  ?t  of  Is  the  nominative  to  an  active  verb  act- 

intraiisitive  l^  ive  or  passive.'     Give  an  example.     448. 

How  may  active  verbs  be  divided?   439.  Is  the  nominative  to  a  passive  verb  ac- 

When  is  an  active  verb  transitive?  Give  live  or  passive  ?     Give  an  example.     448. 

an  example.     440.  In  what  particular  is  tho  passive  voice 

When   is   an  active  verb  intransitive?  a  convenient  form  of  expression?    Give  an 

Give  an  example.     441.  example.     449. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  passive  7    412.  What  is  the  meaning  o{ neuter  ?ij 

•  See  queitioD  to  142.         I  See  question  to  150.         }  See  questioR  to  132.         4  See  quntioD  to  157 


mooD.  63 

450.  A  neuter  verb  is  one  that  is  neither  active  nor  pas- 
sive, expressing  simply  either  being  or  existence  in  a  certain 
state ;  as,  "  He  sits,"  "  He  is  at  houie." 


XXXVII  [.     MOOD,  OR  MODE. 

451.  Mood,  or  mode,  is  the  manner  of  representing  action 
or  being. 

452.  The  indicative  mood  is  used  simply  for  indicating 
or  declaring  a  thing,  or  asking  a  question ;  as,  "  I  walk ;" 
"Do  I  walk?" 

453.  The  potential  mood  is  used  for  expressing  possi- 
bility, liberty,  power,  will,  or  obligation,  either  with  or  with- 
out asking  a  question  ;  as,  "  I  may  go  ;"  "  May  I  go  ?"  "  He 
must  read,"  &c. 

454.  Of  the  subjunctive  mood.  The  ierm  subjiaiclive  signifies  subjoined 
or  added  to. 

453.  When  I  say,  "  I  will  go,  if  he  desire  it,"  the  phrase  "  if  he  desire  it"  is* 
added  on  to  the  one  before  it :  hence  we  say,  "  if  he  desire  it"  is  in  the  sub- 
jiuictive  mood.     The  term,  however,  is  limited  to  such  sentences  as  are  pre- 
ceded by  the  conjunctions  i/,  unless,  although,  except,  lest,  &c.,  which  imply 
doubt  or  some  uncertainty'. 

456.  The  subjunctive  mood  is  used  for  expressing  doubt 
or  uncertainty. 

437.  A  ^•erb  in  the  subjunctive  mood  may  be  expressed  in  two  different 
forms.  It  is  equally  correct  to  say,  "  If  he  is  poor,  he  is  respected,"  jmd  "  If 
he  be  studious,  he  will  excel."  The  verbs  be  and  is  are  both  in  the  present 
teuse;  and  since  each  has  the  conjunction  j/before  it,  each  is  in  the  subjunc- 
tive mood. 

'138.  The  phrase  "  If  he  be  studious"  means  the  same  as  "  If  he  will  be 
studious;"  it  therefore  plainly  implies  future  time. 

459.  On  the  contrary,  in  the  phrase  "  If  he  is  poor,"  the  sense  plainly  is, 
"  If  he  is  now,  at  the  present  time,  poor,"  without  any  reference  to  future  time. 

4.G0.  Hence  it  appears,  that,  in  one  form  of  the  verb,  doubt  only  is  implied  j 
and  in  the  other,  both  doubt  mid  Jiitiire  time. 

What  is  a  neuter  verb  .'    Give  an  e.xam-  How  is   the  term  subjitnctive  limited? 

pie.     450.  455. 

How  many  kinds  of  verbs  are  there,  and  What  is  the  subjunctive  mood  used  for  ? 

what  are  tliey  .'     438.  456. 

XXXVIII.     What  is  the  meaning  of  How  many  different  forms  has  it .'    457. 

vioodl     166.  Give  an  example  of  each.     457. 

What  is  7?iood .'     451.  In  what  tense  are  the  verbs  6«  and  «>  ? 

What  is  the    meaning   of  indicative  ?  457. 

1G8.  In  what  mood   is  each  with  the  eon- 

VVhat  is  the  indicative  mood  used  for  .'  junction  if  before  it  ?     457. 

Give  an  example.     452.  What  does  "  If  he  be  studious"  mean, 

What  is  the  meaning  of  potential  7   212.  as  it  respects  time  .'     458. 

What  is  the  potential  mood   used  for.'  What  tense,  then,  is  referred  to  .'    458. 

Give  an  example.     453.  What  does  "  If  he  is  poor"  me«n,  in 

What  is  the  meaning  of  subjunctive  ?  respect  to  time  .'     4.59. 

454.  What  idea,  then,  is  implied  in  the  one 
In  what  mood  \a  "  If  he  desire  it" .'  form  ?    4C0. 

455.  What  two  ideas  in  the  other  form  ?  46Q. 


64  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

461.  The  verb  is  corresponds  with  llie  common  form  of  the  verb  <o  Z»e,  in 
tlie  hidicative  mood,  proacul  tense ;  as,  "  I  am,  30U  are,  he  is  :" — we  will, 
therei'ore,  when  the  verb  is  varied  as  usual,  call  it  the  common  form  of  the  sub- 
junctive mood  ;  and  when  the  verb  is  not  varied  in  the  different  persons,  wo 
will  call  it  the  subjunctivi  form,  since  this  form  is  peculiar  to  this  mood.  You 
should  here  be  informed  that  this  distinction  relates  only  to  the  present  tense, 
it  being  customary  to  vary  the  terniinatious  of  tiie  verb  in  the  remaining  tenses, 
as  usual. 

462.  The  following-  general  rules  will  dirccl"-you  in  the  proper  use  of  the 
subjunctive  mood  : 

463.  When  any  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  present 
tense,  has  a  rclerence  to  future  time,  we  should  use  the 

SUBJUAX'TIVE   FORM. 

Present  Tense. 

464.  Singulca:  Plural, 

1.  If  I  love.  1.  If  we  love. 

2.  If  thou  or  you  love.  2.  If  ye  or  you  love. 

3.  If  he  love.  3.  If  they  love. 

405.  Wlien  a  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  present  tense, 
has  no  reference  to  future  time,  we  should  use  the 

co,Ai;\io?«;  FORM. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  love.  1.  If  we  love. 

2.  If  thou  lovcst,  oj- >  2.  If  ye  love,  or  ^ 
If  you  love.           5  If  you  love.     \ 

3.  If  iie  loves.  3.  If  they  love.  _ 

46G.  Other  ccnjimetious,  besides  if,  are  used  before  the  subjunctive  mood. 
Jfh  perhaps  used  most  frequently,  because  it  implies  doubt  more  strongly  than 
most  others. 

467.  Bj'  the  foregoing,  you  may  perceive  tliat  when  the  verb  is  in  the  sub- 
junctive form,  some  auxiliarj'  verb  is  always  understood  ;  as,  "  He  will  not  be 
pardoned  unless  he  repent,"  that  is,  "  unless  he  will  repent ;"  "  If  thou  ever 
return,  thou  shouldsl  be  r!iL>nkfal,"  that  is,  "if  thou  shouldsl  ever  return." 

468.  A  verb  in  the  indicative  mood  is  converted  into  the  subjunctive,  com- 
mon form,  simply  by  placing  a  conjunction,  implying  doubt,  before  it ;  as, 
'•'  I  walk,"  the  indicative  mood,  becomes  subjimctive  by  j)retixing  if;  thus, 
'-If  I  walk."  '  - 

469.  In  like  manner,  a  verb  in  the  potential  may  be  changed  to  the  sub- 
junclivc ;  as,  "  I  can  go"  is  the  pclcniial ;  "  If  I  can  go,"  the  subjimctive. 

470.  Of  the  IMPKKATIVE  .MOOD.  When  I  say,  "John,  mind  your  book," 
I  command  John  to  do  somcihiug  ;  and  because  imperative  means  command- 
ing, we  say  that  viiiid,  in  the  phrase  abo\e,  is  iii  tlie  imperative  mood. 

With  what  does  tlio  verb  Ui  correspond  ?  freinioiilly  in  the  subjunctive  mood  ?  4ii6. 
■161.  What  "does  "He  will  not  be  pardoned 

IIow  is  the  verb  varied  in  tbo  common  unless  bo  repent"  mean  ?     467. 
furjn  of  ihe  subjunctive  mood.'    461.  \Vhat,  then,  is  umlerstood  .'     467. 

VVby  called  common  .•"     How  varied  in        "  If  tbou  ever  return,  tbou  shouldsl  be 

the  subjunctive  form?    Why  called  sub-  timnkfnl:"  what  dcies  tliis  mean  ,'     467. 
juiictivo.'     461.  Wbat,  ibcn,  is  understood  .'     467. 

How  is  tbis  distinction  liraitcxl  .■'     461.  Wiiat  is  always  understood  in  this  form.' 

How  are  tlie  remaining  lenses  varied .'  467. 
461.  How  may  a  verb  in  the  indicative  mood 

When  do  we  use  the  subjunctive  form?  be  converted  into  the  subjunctive  ?  468. 
463.  How  can  the  potential  bo  changed  to 

Will  you  conjugate  llio  verb  ?D«c  in  this  the  subjunctive  ?  Give  an  example.  469. 
form,  in  the  present  tense?    464.  In   what    mood   is  "John,   mind  your 

When  do  we  use  the  common  form?  Btndies?"     Why?    470. 
46.5.  What  is  the  meaning  of  imperative  1 

Why  is  the  conjunction  \f  used  most  470. 


MOOD.  C5 

471.  Tliis  mood,  for  reasons  assigned  before,  (IH.)  emhrnces  (he  following 
particulars  i 

1.  Command;     as,  "  John,  sit  up." 

2.  Ent re.alij ;       as,  "  Do  visit  me." 

3.  Exhorting;    as,  "  Rememhcr  my  counsel." 

4.  Permitliug ;  as,  "  Go  in  peace." 

472.  The  imperative  mood,  then,  is  used  for  commanding, 
entreating,  exhorting,  or  perii-iitting. 

473.  'I'lie  applicatio'i  of  this  mood  is  limilcd  lo  the  second  j)crsoii  ;  as, 
"John,  come  to  me ;"  because,  in  uttering  a  comuiand,  making  an  entreaty 
&.C.  we  must  necessarily  address  some  one  ;  hence  you  can  see  the  reason 
uli}'  this  mood  has  but  one  person,  viz.  the  second. 

474.  We  cannot,  with  any  propriety,  command  a  person  to-day,  or  in  pres- 
ent time,  to  do  any  tiling  in  past  time,  yesterday  for  instance ;  consequently  a 
verb  in  this  mood  cannot  liave  ;my  past  tense. 

•  475.  When  I  connnand  a  person  to  do  any  thing,  the  performance  of  the 
command  must  take  place  in  a  period  of  time  subsequent  to  that  of  the  com- 
mand j  that  is,  in  future  time  5  but  the  command  itself  must,  from  the  very 
nature  of  the  case,  take  place  in  present  time  :  this  mood,  therefore,  cannot, 
strictly  sjjeaking,  have  any  future  tense  :  hence, 

47G.  A  verb  in  the  imperative  mood  must  be  in  the  present  tense,  and  in 
tlie  seconil  person. 

477.  Of  the  infinitive  mood.  In  the  phrases,  "  John  begins  losing," 
"The  boys  begin  to  sing,"  "  Thnu  beginnest  lo  sing,"  you  perceive  that  the 
verb  to  sing  is  not  varied  to  corrC'spond  with  the  number  and  person  of  its 
dilfereut  agents,  John,  tlie  boi/s,  and  tlioii :  lience  to  sing  is  said  not  to  be 
limited  either  by  person  or  iRunl^er. 

478.  This  mood,  then,  is  properly  denominated  infinitive,  signifying  not 
limifed :  hence, 

479.  The  infinitive  mood  is  used  to  express  an  action 
not  limited  either  i)y  person  or  number. 

480.  7'o,  the  usual  sign  of  this  mood,  is  sometimes  understood  ;  as,  "  Let 
ine  go,"  instead  of"  Let  me  to  go ;"  "  I  heard  him  say  it,"  for  "  I  heard  him 
to  say  it."  Tiiis  little  word  to,  when  used  before  verbs  in  ihis  manner,  is  not 
a  preposition,  but  forms  a  part  of  the  verb,  and,  in  parsing,  shoukl  l)e  so  cou- 
siderttd. 

481.  From  the  foregoing,  it  appears  that  there  are  five 
moods — tlie  indicative,  the  imperative,  the  potential,  the 
subjunctivS,  and  the  infinitive. 

How  many  particulars  does  this  mood  VVliat    is    the    meaning    of  infinitive! 

embrace  .'     471.     Why  so  many  ?    214.  478. 

What,  then,  is  the    imperative    mood  In   what  mood  is  sing,  \:i  the  phrases, 

used  fur.'     472.     Give  an  example  of  com-  "  John  begins  to  sing,"  "The  boys  begin 

manding  .'  one  of  entreating?  one  of  ex-  tof'sing,"    "Thou    beginnest    to    sMig"? 

horting  ?  one  of  permitting.'     471.  477,    478. 

How  many  persons  has  this  mood.'  473.  In  what  particulars  is  this  mood  reckoQ- 

Wliat  person  is  it .'     47.3.  od  not  to  be  limited  .'    477. 

Has  this  mood  any  past  tense  .'     Why?  Whal,  then,  is  the  iufinitive  mood  used 

474.  for?     479. 

Wlien  I  command  a  person,  when,  if  at  What  is  the  usual  sign  of  this  mood? 

all,  must  the  performance  of  the  command  480. 

take  place?     475.  Is  it  always  expressed?     Give  an  exain- 

Whon,  or   in   what  time,  must  the  com-  pW.     480. 

inniil  itselfbe  given  ?     475.  How  is  the  sign  Jo  to  be  parsed  ?     480. 

lias  this  mood,  then,  any  faluie  tense?  Wliy  parsed  with  the  verb  ?     480. 

475.  How  many  moods  are  there,  and  whtlt 
How  many  tenses,  then,  has  it  ?     How  are  they  ?     4S1, 

ipany  persons  i    476. 

6* 


^G  ,  ENGLISH  GllAiMMAR. 


XXXIX.     OF  TENSE. 

482.  The  present  tense  expresses  what  is  now  taking 
place  ;  as,  "  John  swims." 

483.  This  tense  is  often  eniplo^'ed  to  express  the  actions  of  persons  long 
since  dead  ;  as,  "  Seneca  reasons  and  moralizes  mcII." 

484.  The  present  tense,  preceded  by  tlie  words  when,  before,  afler,  as  soon 
as,  &c.,  is  sometimes  used  to  point  out  the  relative  time  of  a  future  action}  as, 
"  vVi'.en  he  arrives,  he  will  hear  the  news." 

485.  This  tense  is  elegantly  applied  to  qualities  and  things  which  are  in 
their  nature  unchangeable  ;  as,  "  Truth  is  eternctl ;"  "  William  boldly  asserted 
there  was  no  God ;"  properly,  "  is  no  God." 

486.  In  animated  (1.)  historical  narrations,  (2.)  this  tense  is  sometimes  used 
for  the  imperfect ;  as,  '•  He  enlers  the  territory  of  the  peaceable  inhabitants  ; 
he  fights  and  conquers,  takes  an  immense  booty,  which  he  divides  among  his 
soldiers,  and  returns  home  to  eiij(>y  an  empty  Iriiunph." 

487.  The  imperfect  tense  expresses  what  took  place  in 
time  past,  however  distant;  as,  "  John  died." 

488.  The  2'CrJ'cct  tense  e\\n-esses  what  has  taken  place, 
and  conveys  an  allusion  to  the  present  time;  as,  "I  have 
finished  my  letter." 

489.  When  any  particular  period  of  past  time  is  specified  or  alluded  to,  we 
use  the  imperfect  tense  ;  as,  "  John  wrote  yesterday  ;"  but  when  no  particular 
past  time  is  specified,  we  use  the  perfect  tense]  as,  "  I  have  read  Virgil  many 
times." 

490.  The  perfect  tense  and  the  imperfect  tense  both  denote  a  thing  that  is 
past ;  but  the  former  denotes  it  in  such  a  manner  that  there  is  still  actually  rc- 
mahiing  some  part  of  the  time  to  slide  away,  wherein  we  declare  the  thing  has 
been  done  ;  whereas  the  imperfect  denotes  the  thing  or  action  past,  hi  such  a 
nianner,  that  nothing  remains  of  that  time  in  which  it  was  done.  If  we  speak 
of  the  present  century,  we  say,  "  I'hilosojflicrs  have  made  great  discoveries  in 
the  present  century  ;"  but  if  we  spea!:  of  the  last  century,  we  say,  "  Philoso- 
phers made  great  discoveries  in  the  last  century."—'''  lie  has  been  much 
afflicted  tins  j'ear."  "  1  have  this  week  read  the  king's  proclamation."  "  1 
have  heard  gTeat  news  this  morning."  In  these  instances,  He  has  been,  I  have 
read,  and  hettrd,  denote  things  that  are  past ;  but  they  occurrad  in  tliis  year, 

XXXIX.    Wliat  is  the  nieaiiiiig  oi' prcs-  Wliat  dog^  tho  perfect  tciiso  exj^ress  ? 

ent  1     173.  Givo  an  example.     458. 

Vv'bat  decs  the  present  tense  c.tpicss  .'  "  John  wrote  yesterday."    ^'VHiat  tenso 

462.     Give  an  example.     432.  is  t lie  verb  in  here.'    489. 

"  Soneea  rciaso'.is  well."    "tVhat  tense  is  Vi'hy  is  this  tense  used  ."■    489. 

employed  here  .'    Why?    433.                 "  "  I  have  read  Virailir.any  times."  Why 

In  the    phrase  "When    lie    arrives,"  is  tho  perfect  tense  ijsed  liere  .'    489. 

future  time  is  alluded  to  :    why,  then,  is  What  do  both  tlm  perfect  and  imperfect 

the  present  einpioycd  .'    484.  dcnolo  .'     490. 

Do  we  say,  "  Thei-o  is,"  or  "  there  was  How  docs  the  former  der«)te  it?    490. 

no  God  ?"  'Why  ?     485.  liow  does  the  latter  ?    490. 

What  is  the  moaning  of  rt.it'wfliwZ?  486.  Do  we  say,  "  riiilosopbers  made,'"  nr 

Weaning  of  narrations  1    48G.  "  have  made,  great  discoveries  in  the  pras- 

"  He  enters  the  territory,"  &.C.   Why  is  ent  century  ?"  Why  ?     490. 

tho  present  tense  used  ?    '436.  Which  tense  do  wo  use  in  speaking  o.' 

What  is  the  meaning  of  imper/fci?  131.  the  last  century  ?     490.  Give  an  example. 

How  came  this  term  to  bo  used,  to  de-  490. 

note  an  action  pest  and  finished  ?*  "  I  have  this  v.eok  road  the  king's  proc 

What  does  the  imperfect  tense  express  ?  laraation."  "I  liave  beard  great  ncw» 
487.     Give  an  example.     437.                       ■  this  morning."    Wliich  arc  the  verbs  used 

Meaning  oC perfect  ?j  in  those  two  sentences?    490. 

(I.)  Livi-ly.  (2.)  Descriptions,  or  tcllin,^'  what  has  been  done. 

*  See  qutsliou  lo  IS2.  I  FiiiisheU,  or  complete. 


TENSES.    PARTICIPLES,  67 

in  this  week,  ami  io-daj  ;  and  still  there  remains  a  part  of  this  year,  week  and 
day,  whereof  1  speak. 

<tOO 1.  In  gbneral,  the  perfect  tense  may  be  applied  wherever  the  action 

is  connected  with  the  present  time,  by  the  actual  existence,  either  of  the  author 
or  of  the  work,  though  it  may  have  been  performed  many  centuries  ago  ;  but 
if  neither  the  author  nor  the  work  now  remains,  it  cannot  be  used.  We  may 
say,  "  Cicero  has  tcriUen  orations  ;"  but  we  cannot  say,  "  Cicero  has  written 
poems  ;"  because  the  orations  are  in  being,  but  the  poems  are  lost.  Speaking 
of  priests  m  general,  we  maysay,  "  They /itice,  ni  all  ages,  c/azmcti  great 
powers ;"  because  the  general  order  of  the  priesthood  still  exists  :  but  it  we 
speak  of  the  Druids,  as  any  particular  order  of  priests,  which  does  not  now 
exist,  we  c;mnot  use  this  tense.  We  cannot  say,  "  The  Druid  priests  have 
claimed  great  powers  ;"  but  must  say,  "  The  Druid  priests  claimed  great  pow- 
ers ;"  because  that  order  is  now  totally  extinct. 

491.  The plnpcrfixt  tense  expresses  what  had  taken  place 
at  some  past  time  mentioned  ;  as,  "  I  had  finisked  my  letter 
before  my  father  returned." 

492.  The  first  future  tense  expresses  what  will  take  place ; 
as,  "  John  will  come." 

493.  The  second  future  expresses  what  will  have  taken 
place,  at  or  before  some  future  time  mentioned;  as,  "  I  shall 
have  finished  my  business  before  the  steam-boat  starts." 

494.  Tense  is  the  distinction  of  time,  and  admits  of  six 
variations,  namely — the  present,  the  imperfect,  tlie  perfect, 
the  pluperfect,  and  the  first  and  second  future  tenses. 


XL.     OF  PARTICIPLES. 

49,5.  Li  the  i^hrase,  "  I  found  a  man  laboring  in  the  field,"  the  word  labor- 
ing sho\\'s  what  the  man  was  doing,  and  therefore  resembles  a  verb.  When  I 
sa3',  "  The  laboring  man  should  not  be  wronged,"  laboriiig  is  joined  to  the 
noun  iiuw,  to  describe  it,  and  therefore  resembles  an  adjective. 

496.  The  u  ord  laboring,  then,  partakes  of  the  nature  of  two  different  parts 
of  speech  ;  and  since  participle  sigmRes  partaking  of,  we  will  call  such  words 
as  laboring,  participles. 

What  do  thoy  denote .'     When  did  these  Give  an  example.  492.     Why  called  lirst 

things  occur  ?     490.  future  ?* 

To  what  may  the  perfect  tense  in  gen-  Wliat  does  the  second  future  express  .' 

eral  be  applied  ?    What  e.\ception  is  men-  Give  an  example.  493. 

tioned  ?     490 — 1.  IIow  many  tenses  are  there  in  all,  and 

Do  we  say,  "  Cicero  wrote,"   or   "  has  what  are  they  .'  494. 

written,  orations.'"  "  Cicero  jo'oJe,"  or  In  wliat  mood  is    "  Ho  runs"  .'    Why? 

"  haj  icrittai;  pocnjg  ?"  Why  .'  490—1.  452.     "  Does  he  run  ."'  Why  .'  452.    "  I 

In  speaking'  of  pric^trf,  in  general,  why  may  run"  .^  Why  .'  453.     "  Should  I  have 

3o   we  say,     "They    have   in   all   ages  studied?"  Why  .'  453.  "  If  he  accept"  ? 

claimed  great  j)0\vers."  490— ].  Why.'    4,56.     "  If  he  accepts"  .'    Why' 

Can  we  say,  "  Tlie  Druid  priests   have  456.     "  To  sing"  i  Why  .'  479. 

claimed  "roat  powers"  .'  What  should  we  lu  what  tense  is  "  He  sings"  .'    Why  .' 

cay  ?  Vv'liy  .'  490— 1.  482.    "  Did  he  sing  .?"  Why  ?  487.    "He 

What  is   the  meaning  oi  pluperfect  1  has  read"  i"  4B8.  Wliy?    "Had  ho  writ- 

186.  ten" .'    491.    Why .'      "  Shall   he   go  ?" 

What  does  the  pluperfect  tense   ex-  492.     "  I  shall  have  gone"  .'  Why.'  493. 

piess  .'  491.     Give  an  example.   491.  XL.     What  parts  of  speech  does  iaior 

Meaning  of  future  1  177.  hw  resemble  .'  Give  an  example.  495. 

What  does  the  first  future   express.'  What  is  the  meaning  of  jjariicipZe?  495 

~  "  «See  question  to  191. 


C8  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

497.  All  participles  are  derived  from  verbs  ;  thus,  from  labor  comes  IcJior- 
ing ;  from  beat,  beating ;  rejoice,  rejoicing,  &c.  :  hence, 

498.  The  participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  and 
partakes  of  the  nature  of  a  verb  and  adjective. 

499.  Wlienl  say,  "  John  is  writing-,"  tlie  participle  writing  shows  what 
John  is  now  doing-,  but  has  not  tinislied  ;  meriting,  then,  may  be  called  a  i)res- 
enl  participle  ;  hence, 

500.  The  present  participle  expresses  what  is  now  taking 
place,  but  not  finished. 

301 — 1.  This  participle  always  ends  in  ing;  as,  sinning,  fighting,  weeping, 
lovi?ig,  &,c.  There  are  many  words  of  this  termination,  which  are  not  parti- 
ciples ;  as,  morning,  evening,  which  are  nouns ;  uninteresting,  unsatisfying , 
wliich  are  adjectives.  The  fact  that  these  cannot  be  formed  from  verbs  will 
furin'sh  yon  with  a  certain  rule  for  distinguishing  the  participle  from  all  other 
words  of  the  same  termination  ;  as,  for  instance,  uninteresting,  we  know,  is  not 
a  participle,  because  there  is  no  such  verb  as  uninterest,  from  which  to  form  it. 

501.  "  The  letter  rs  written."  Here  the  participle  written  shows  that  the 
act  of  writing-  is  past  and  finished;  it  may  then  be  called  a  perfect  participle  : 
hence, 

502.  The  perfect  participle  expresses  what  is  past  and  fin- 
ished. 

302—1.  This  participle  ma}' always  be  distinguished  by  its  making  sense 
with  having  ;  thus,  having  written,  haring  sung,  &c.  Here  written  and  svng 
are  perfect  participles. 

503.  "  John,  hnving  written  his  letter,  sealed  it."  Here  j-ou  doubtless  per 
ceivo  that  the  act  of  writing  look  place  before  that  of  sealing;  also,  that  the 
participle  is  coinjiosod  of  two  wonls.  hifving  and  written  ;  it  may  (hen  be  call 
ed  a  roiiipii/Md  paiiicijiic,  ami  because  it  denotes  also  an  action  past  and  finish 
ed,  it  may  \-cry  [jropcrly  be  calletl  a  compound  perfect  participle  :  hence, 

504.  The  compound  perfect  participle  expresses  what  took 
place  boforR  something  else  mentioned. 

501 — 1.  'J'liis  p;iriiri|ilc  is  formed  by  placing  the  present  participle  having 
before  llie  perfeci  parhripic  of  any  \-erl)  ;  as,  having  fought,  having  ciphered. 


XLI.      FORMATION  OF  THE  PASSIVE  VERB. 

505.   Slriirk  is  a  perfect  participle,  from  the  verb  strike,  and  this  you  know 
because  it  makes  sense  joined  with  liaving;  as,  having  strurk. 

From  what  are  all  participles  derived.'  Having  written,  having  sung.     Wliich 

40.".  Give  an  example.  497.  arc  the  perfect  i)articij)les  lieie  .''  .'JC12. 

What  ii  a  participle  ?  498.  "  John,  having  written  his  letter,  seai- 

Wheii   I  say,  "John  is  writing,"  what  ed     it."       Which    took    place    first,  the 

does  7Prti)>ir  show  .'  499.  writing  or  sealing.'  50;^. 

What,  then,  may  it  be  called  .'  499.  Of  what  is  this  participle  comjiosed  .' 

VVhat,  then,   is   a  present  participle  .'  51K), 

.•iOI).  What,  then,  may  it  be  called  i  ,503. 

W^hat  does  this  partici])le  always  end  What  does /i«(/in)»-jc?-(£te/i  denote  in  ref'? 

in  ?  .000 — 1.     Oive  an  example.  500 — 1.  erencu  to  time  and  action.'  503. 

Me  all  words  ending  in  mo- participles  .'  What  may  it  thence  he  called  .'  503. 

Givi-  an  exaniple  of  nouns  of  this  termi-  What  docs   a  compound  perfect   jiarti- 

nation  r  of  adjectives  .'  500—1  cijile  express.'  504. 

How,   then,  can  the    |)articipie  be  dis-  How   is   tliis   participle   formed  .'  504. 

tingui«hed  .'  Give  an  example.  500 — 1.  Give  an  example.  504. 

"The  lett'ir  is  written."     What  does  XLI.     Striking,  struck,  having  struck. 

the  participle  written  show  here  .'  What,  Here  are  three  different  participles  :  can 

then,  may  it  ho  called  .'  501.  you   tell  which   is   the   jjresent .'  Why.' 

What  is  a  perfect  participle  .'  502.  500.     Perfect .'    Why  .'    502.    Compound 

How   may   this   participle   always    be  perfect.'  Why?  503. 

known  .'  Give  an  example,  502 — 1.  What  kind  of  a  participle   is  struck  1 

505.    How  do  you  know  this'  305. 


VERBS.  G9 

606.  Is,  ^ou  doubtless  rocolloct,  is  a  varieition  of  ilic  \er!)  (o  be ;  as,  "  I  am, 
you  arc,  lie  is  :"  now,  by  joiiiiiijr  is  willi  struck,  wc  can  form  Ihc  passive  verb 
is  struck;  "John  strikes  Joscpii"  is  active  ;  but  "Joseph  is  struck  by  John" 
IS  passive. 

307.  In  these  two  cxtimples,  you  perceive  lliat  the  sense  of  each  is  the 
same  :  hence,  by  means  of  the  passive  verb,  wc  are  enabled  to  express,  in  a 
different  form,  the  precise  mcniiinj^  of  the  active,  which,  you  will  oftentimes 
find,  contributes  not  a  lilllo  to  the  variety  and  harmony  of  the  language. 

508.  By  examining  the  conjugation  of  the  \crb  to  be,  you  will  discover  that 
it  has,  in  all,  ten  variations  :  viz.  am,  art,  is,  are,  iras,  trust,  icere,  been,  /&<>,  and 
being.  Every  passive  verb  must  be  composed  of  one  of  these  ten  variations, 
and  the  perfect  participle  of  any  active  transitive  verb.  Thus,  taking  was,  ancl 
joining  it  with  the  perfect  participle  of  the  verb  beat,  namely,  bealen,  we  fonn 
the  passive  verb  was  beaten,  to  which  prefixing  an  object,  or  nominative  case, 
we  have  the  phrase,  "  William  was  beaten." 

50y.  It  is  a  fact  worthy  to  be  remembered,  that  the  passive  verb  always 
retains  the  same  mood,  tense,  number,  and  person,  that  the  verb  to  be  has,  be 
fore  it  is  incorporated  with  the  participle  ;  tliiis,  "  He  has  been"  is  the  indica 
tive  perfect,  third  person  singular  ;  then,  "  He  has  been  rejected,"  is  Ijkewise 
the_ indicative  perfect,  third  person  singular,  passive.  It  cannot,  therefore,  be 
difiicult  to  tell  the  mood,  tense,  number,  and  person  of  an}'  passive  verb,  if  you 
are  familiar  vWth  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  to  be. 

From  the  foregoing  particulars,  we  derive  the  following  general  rule  : 

510.  All  passive  verbs  are  formed  by  adding  the  perfect 
participle  of  any  active-transitive  verb  to  the  neuter  verb  to  he. 


XLII.     OF  THE  AUXILIARY  VERB. 

511.  Auxiliary  verbs  are  those  by  the  help  of  which  the 
principal  verbs  are  conjugated. 

512.  The  auxiliary  verbs  are  may,  can,  7nust,  migJit,  could, 
would,  should,  and  shall.  The  following  are  sometimes  aux- 
iliaries, and  sometimes  principal  verbs  :  do,  be,  have,  and  loill. 

513.  Wiien,  in  the  formation  of  any  tense,  we  use  an  auxiliary  verb,  that 
tense  is  called  a  compound  one  5  and  "the  tense  formed  by  the  principal  verb 
alone  is  called  a  simple  tense. 


XLIII.     SIGNS  OF  THE  MOODS. 

514.  The  indicative  inood  may  be  known  by  the  sense,  or 
by  its  having  no  sign  except  in  asking  a  question  ;  as,  "  Who 
comes  here  ?" 

Of  what  verb  is  the  verb  is  a  varia-  AVIiat   fat-t  is  mentioned  as  wortliy  of 

lion  ?  500.  notice  ?  500. 

Will  you  form  a  passive  verb  witli  is  What  moo'l,  tense,   number,  and   per- 

and  struck  ?  506.  sou  is  "  He  has  been" .'  509.   Is  "  He  has 

"  Jolin  strikes  Joseph."     How  may  the  been  rejected"  ?  509. 

sense  of  this  sentence  be  expressed  by  a  ^Vhat  will  make  the  mooJ,  tense,  &c. 

passive  verb  .'  506.  of  passive  verbs  familial  •"  509. 

What   advantage  does  the  use  of  the  How  arc  all  passive  verbs  formed  .' 510 

passive  verb  often  afford  ns  .'  .507.  XLH.     What  is  the  meaning  of  auxil- 

To  what  does  it  contribute  ?  507.  ianj  ?  196. 

How  many   vaviaiions  has  the  verb  to  What  are  auxiliary  verbs  .'  511. 

be  iu  all  .'  508.     What  are  they  .'  508.  Will  you  name  tliem  ?  519. 

What  will  always  compose  one  part  of  What  verbs  are  used  both  as  auxiliary 

a  passive  verb  ?  508.    What  tho  other  aad  principal  verbs  .'  512. 

part  .'508.      -  XLIlt.     What  is  the  sign  of  the  indica- 
tive mood  .'  514.   Give  an  exumplc.    514. 


70  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 

615.  The  potential  mood  has  for  its  signs  the  auxiliaries 
tiiay,  can,  must,  iiiight,  could,  would,  and  should;  as,  "I 
could  love,"  &c. 

516.  The  subjunctive  mood  has  usually  for  its  signs  the 
conjunctions  if,  though,  unless,  except,  whether,  and  lest;  as, 
"Unless  he  repent,"  &i.G. 

517.  The  infinitive  mood  has  usually  for  its  sign  the  word 
*o  ;  as,  to  sing. 

518.  The  imperative  mood  may  be  distinguished  by  its 
always  being  in  the  second  person,  and  by  its  agreement 
with  thou,  or  ye,  or  you  ;  as,  "  Depart  thou,"  &c. 


XLIV.     SIGNS   OF   THE   TENSES   OF  THE 
INDICATIVE. 

519.  The  present  tense  has  for  its  sign  the  first  form  of 
the  verb  ;  as,  weep,  remain,  &c. ;  excepting  the  occasional 
use  of  do  ;  as,  "  I  do  learn." 

520.  The  imperfect  tense  has  no  auxiliary  for  a  sign,  ex- 
cept did,  which  is  sometimes  used.  If,  however,  the  verb  is 
not  in  the  present  tense,  and  has  no  auxiliary,  it  follows  that 
it  is  in  the  imperfect;  as,  "  I  fought." 

521.  The  perfect  tense  has  for  its  sign  the  word  have;  as, 
have  loved. 

522.  The  pluperfect  has  for  its  sign  had ;  as,  had  loved. 

523.  The  first  future  has  for  its  sign  shall  ox  toill ;  as, 
shall  or  will  love. 

524.  The  second  future  has  for  its  sign  shall  have  or  will 
have ;  as,  shall  have  loved,  or  ivill  have  loved. 

525.  The  indicative  mood  has  six  tenses. 
520.  The  subjunctive  mood  has  six  tenses. 

527.  The  potential  mood  has  four  tenses. 

528.  The  infinitive  mood  has  two  tenses. 

529.  The  imperative  mood  has  one  tense. 

What  is  tho  sign  of  the  potential  mood?  Sign  of  the  perfect?  521.     Give  un  ex- 

515.     Give  an  exiimi)le.  515.  am|>le.  521. 

What  is  the   sign  of  the  suhjnnctive  Sign  of  the  pluperfect  ?   522.     Give  an 

mood?  516.     Give  an  example.  51C.  example.  522. 

What  isthe  sigiiof  the  infinitive  mood  ?  Sign  of  the  first  future  ?  523.     Give  an 

617.     Give  an  example.    517.  examjile.  .523. 

What  is  the  sign  of  the   imperative?  Sign  of  the  second  future?  524.     Give 

518.  Give  an  example.  518.  an  example.  524. 

XLIV.     What  is  the  sign  of  the  pres-  How  many  tenses  has  the  indicative 

ent  indicative  ?  519.      Give  an  example,  mood  ?  525. 

519.  How  many  the  subjunctive  ?  526. 
Sign  of  the  imperfect  ?  520.    Give  an  How  many  the  potential  ?  527. 

example.  520.  How  many  the  infinitive  ?  528. 

How  many  the  imperative  i  539. 


VERBS.  71 


XLV.     CONJUGATION  OF  VERBS. 

530.  When  I  ask  yoii  lo  raise  your  ro/rc,  in  rciuliiig-,  you  rt^ndily  uiulcr- 
staiid  what  I  mean  by  voire  ;  but  iii  gT;unniar,  ils  :i|j|iliciilloii  is  soiii<'\\hril  pe- 
culiar. Granimalicaily  considered,  it  refers  to  llic  a<li\e  and  |):issi\e  nalure 
of  verbs. 

531.  The  CONJUGATION  of  a  veil)  is  tlio  regular  coiuhiiia- 
tion  and  arrangement  of  its  several  numbers,  persons,  moods 
and  tenses. 

532.  The  conjugation  of  an  active  verb  is  staled  the 
ACTIVE  VOICE,  and  that  of  a  passive  verb  the  passive  voice. 

533.  Verbs  are  called  recjular,  when  they  form  their  im- 
perfect tense  of  the  indicative  mood,  and  tht-ir  perfect  parti- 
ciple, by  the  addition  of  cd  to  the  verb  in  the  present  tense, 
or  d  only  when  the  verb  ends  in  e ;  as, 

Pi-es.    Tense.       Imp.    Tense.    '  Pcrf.   Participle. 
I  favor.  I  favored.  Favored. 

I  love.  I  loved.  Loved. 

534.  When  a  verb  does  not  form  its  imperfect  tense  and 
perfect  participle  in  this  manner,  it  is  called  an  iiiue(;ulau 
verb  ;  as, 

Pi-es.    Tense.       Imp.    Tense.       Per/.   Participle. 
I  am.  I  was.  Been. 

535.  The  regular  verb  love,  and  the  irregiUar  verb  to  be^ 
are  conjugated  as  follows ; — 

CONJUGATION. 

TO  LOVE  AND  TO  BE. 

ACTIVE     AND     PASSIVE     VOICE     C  O  N  T  R  AS  T  i;  D. 
INDICATIVE    MOOD. 

PRESENT    TENSE. 

ACTIVE    VOICE.  PASSIVE    VOICE.  NEUTKR 

Shi^ular.  Sino-ular.  Sh/irular 

1  Pei-s.  I  love.  1    Pers.  I  am  loverj.  1    Peru.  1  am 

2  Pers.  You  love.  2  Pers.  You  are  loved.  i>   Pers.  You  are. 

3  Pers.  lie  ioves.  3  Pers.  Tie  is  loved.  3  Pers.  He  is 

Plural.  Plural.  Plural 

1  Pers.  We  love.  I    Pers.  We  are  Io\od.  1    Pers.  We  are 

2  Pers.  You  love.  2  Pers.  You  are  lovc.l.  2  Pers.  You  are 

3  Pers.  They  love.  3  Pers.  Ttiev  are  loved.  3  Pers.  Tliov  are 


XLV.    What  does  jiHiceniuan  in  grain-  When  art;  verbs  rallod    ro"ular  '  .533 

mar.''  530.  Give  an  example-.  .533. 

MHaning  oUon}iigatmn  1  217.  Will  you  repr'at  allor  mo  the  preseiU 

What  H  the  conjugation    of  an  active  tense,  and  name  the  iinperruct  tense  and 

""wi!*^   .',                       ■           r                 ■  P"f"t  l'"t'ciplo,  of   the   verbs  /aw  ? 

What  the   conjugation   of    a   passive  love  1  .533. 

verb  i  532.  When  is  a  verh  called  irregular  i    534. 

Give  an  sxampU.  534. 


72 


ENGLISH  yHAMMAR. 


Singular. 
I  loved. 
You  loved. 
He  loved. 

Plural. 
We  loved. 
You  loved. 
They  loved. 

Singnlar. 
I  have  loved. 
You  have  loved. 
He  has  loved. 
Plural. 
We  have  loved. 
You  have  loved. 
They  have  loved. 

Singular. 
I  had  loved. 
You  had  loved. 
He  had  loved. 

Plural. 
We  had  loved 
You  had  loved. 
They  had  loved. 

Singidar. 
I  shall  or  will  love. 
You  shall  or  v,^\\  love. 
He  shall  or  will  love. 


Plural. 
We  shnll  or  will  love. 
Youshiii!  or  v.'ill  love. 
They     .shall    or    will 
love. 


IMPEKFECT    TENSE. 

Singnlar. 

1.  I  was  joved.  1. 

2.  Yovi  «ere  loved.  2. 

3.  He  was  loved.  3. 
Plural. 

1  We  were  loved.  1. 

2  Vou  were  loved.  2. 
3.  They  were  loved.  3. 

PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular. 

1.  T  have  been  loved.  1. 

2.  You  have  been  loved.  2. 

3.  He  has  been  loved.  3. 
Plural. 

1.  We  have  been  loved.  1. 

2.  You  have  been  loved.  2. 

3.  They  have  been  loved.  3. 

PLUPERFECT    TENSE. 

Singular. 

1.  I  had  been  loved.  1. 

2.  You  had  been  loved.  2. 

3.  He  had  been  loved.  3. 
Plural. 

1.  Vv'e  had  been  loved.  1. 

2.  You  had  been  loved.  2. 

3.  They  had  been  loved.  3. 

FIRST    FUTURE    TENSE. 

Sing7clar. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be  lov-     1. 
ed.  2. 

2.  You   shall  or  will  be    3. 
loved. 

3.  He  shall  or  will   be 
loved. 

Plural. 

1.  We  shall   or  will  be    1. 
loved.  2. 

2.  You  shall  or  will  be    3. 
lov^d. 

3.  They  shall  or  will  be 

loved. 

SECOND  FUTURE  TENSE. 


Singular 
I  was. 
You  were. 
He  was. 

Plural. 
We  were. 
You  were. 
They  were. 

Singular. 
I  have  been. 
You  have  been. 
He  hcis  been. 
Plural. 
We  have  been. 
You  have  been. 
They  have  been 

Singular. 
I  had  been. 
You  had  been. 
He  had  been. 
Plural. 
We  had  been. 
You  had  been 
They  had  been. 

Singular. 
I  shall  or  will  be. 
You  shall  or  will  be. 
He  shall  or  will  be. 


Plural. 
We  shall  or  will  be. 
You  shall  or  will  be. 
They  shall  or  will  be 


Singular. 

1.  I  shall  have  loved. 

2.  You  will  have  loved. 

3.  He  will  have  loved. 


Plural. 

1.  We  shall  have  lo\cd. 

2.  You  will  have  loved. 

3.  They  will  have  loved. 


Singular. 

1.  I  shall  have  been  lov- 

ed. 

2.  You   will   have  been 

loved. 

3.  He  will    have    been 

loved. 
Plural. 

1.  We  shnll  have  been 

loved. 

2.  You   will  have  been 

loved. 

3.  Thov  will  have  been 

hAcd. 


Si7igiilar. 

1.  I  shall  have  been. 

2.  You  will  have  t»cen. 

3.  He  will  have  been. 


Plural. 

1.  We  shall  have  been. 

2.  You  will  have  been. 

3.  Thcj'  w  ill  have  been 


Will  you  conjuFale  lore  in  tlie  present  perfect .'  first  future  .'  second  future  .' 
tense,  active  voice,  indicative  mood?  present  passive.'  imperfect.'  perfect.' 
^15      In  the   imperfect.'    porfect .'  plu-     pluperfect .' first  future  .'  second  future  ? 


TF.Nsns 


73 


Siuj^ulur. 

1.  I  may  or  caii  love. 

2.  You  may  or  can  love. 

3.  He  may  or  can  love. 


Plural. 

1.  We  may  or  can  love. 

2.  You  may  or  can  love. 
'  3.  Tlicy    may    or    can 

love. 


lingular. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would, 

or  slionld  love. 

2.  You     might,     could, 

would,     or    should 
love. 

3.  He      might,      could, 

would,    or     should 
love. 

Plural. 

1.  iVe      might,     could, 

would,    or    should 
love. 

2.  Ifou     might,     could, 

would,    or     should 
love. 

3.  They    might,    could, 

would,    or    should 
love. 

Singula: 

1.  I  may   or    can   Imve 

loved. 

2.  You  may  or  can  have 

loved. 

3.  He  may  or  can  have 

loved. 
Plural. 

1.  We  may  or  can  have 

loved. 

2.  Y'^ou  may  or  can  have 

loved. 

3.  They    may    or    can 

have  loved. 


POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

PRESENT    TENSE. 
Singular. 

1.  I  may  or   can  be  lov- 

ed. 

2.  You  ma}'  or  ran   be 

loved. 

3.  He   may   or  can   be 

loved. 
Plural. 

1.  We  may   or  can    be 

loved. 

2.  You  may   or  can  be 

loved. 

3.  They  may  or  can  be 

loved. 
IMPERFECT    TENSE. 
Singular. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would, 

or  should  be  loved. 

2.  You     might,     couUI, 

would,  or  should  be 
loved. 

3.  lie      might,      could, 

would,  0"  should  be 
loved. 
Plural. 

1.  We      might,      could, 

would,  or  should  be 
loved. 

2.  You     might,     could, 

would,  or  should  be 
loved. 

3.  They    might,    could, 

would,  or  should  be 
lo\'ed. 
PERFECT    TENSE. 
Singular. 

1.  I   maj'   or   can   have 

been  loved. 

2.  You  may  or  can  have 

been  loved. 

3.  He  may  or  can  have 

been  loved. 
Plural. 

1.  We  may  or  can  have 

been  loved. 

2.  You  may  or  can  have 

biOen  loved. 

3.  They    may    or    can 

have  been  loved. 


Singular, 

1 .  I  may  or  can  be. 

2.  You  may  or  can  be 

3.  He  may  or  can  be. 


Plural. 

1.  We  may  or  can  be. 

2.  You  may  or  can  be. 

3.  They  ma}- or  can  be 


Singular. 

1.  I  mighl,  ootild,  would, 

or  should  be. 

2.  You     might,     could, 

would,    or    should 
be. 

3.  He      might,      could, 

would,    or    should 
be. 

Plural. 

1.  We      might,      could, 

would,     or    should 
be. 

2.  You      might,     could, 

would,    or    should 
be. 

3.  They    might,    could, 

would,    or    should 
be. 

Singular. 

1.  I   may   or  can   have 

been. 

2.  You  may  or  can  have 

been. 

3.  He  may  or  can  have 

been. 
Plural. 

1.  We  ma)' o;- can  have 

been. 

2.  You  may  r>r  can  have 

been. 

3.  They  may  or  can  have 

been. 


WtA  you  conjugate  the  verb  to  be,  or  The  second  p.-irson  in  like  manner.''  tlio 
aw,  i<*  the  present .'  the  imperfect  .'  per-  tliinl  ?  the  first  person  plurrj  .'  secoml 
feet.'    pluperfect?    first   future?    second     person   phir.il?  tliird?   first  person  sin?ii- 


future  ? 

Will  you  name  the  first  person  singu- 
lar, Of  the  present  indicative,  nctive  and 
passive,  o^ love,  and  the  first  person  sin- 
gular of  the  verb  to  bel 


fiCt  ?  second  person?  third? 
first  pcrsun  [■liirHl  ?  second  person  pinrul  ? 
third  ?  Mrst  person  singular,  perfect? 
socoud  person  ?  third?  first  person  plu- 
ral •'  second?  tliird? 


74 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


Sin^tilar. 

1.  I  mig'ht,  could, 

or      should 
loved. 

2.  Vou     might, 

would,     or 
have  loyed. 

3.  He      might, 

would,    or 
have  loved. 
Plural. 

1.  We      might, 

would,    or 
have  loved. 

2.  You     might, 

would,     or 
have  loved. 

3.  Tliey    might, 

would,     or 
have  loved. 


Si/iffiilar. 

1.  If  I  love. 

2.  If  vou  love. 

3.  If  l>e  loves. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  love. 

2.  If  you  love. 

3.  If  they  love. 

Sing^ulur. 

1.  If  Hove. 

2.  If  you  love. 

3.  If  he  love. 

Plural. 

1.  If  \ve  love. 

2.  If  you  love. 

3.  If  they  love. 


Singrdar 

1.  If  I  loved. 

2.  If  you  loved. 

3.  If  he  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  loved. 

2.  If  vou  loved. 

3.  If  they  loved. 


PLUPERFECT    TENSE. 

Singular, 
would,     1.  I  might,  could,  would, 
have  or     should      have 

been  loved, 
could,    2.  You     might,     could, 
should  would,    or    should 

have  been  loved, 
could,    3.  He      might,      could, 
should  would,     or    should 

have  been  loved. 
Plural. 
could,     1.  We     might,      could, 
should  would,    or    should 

have  been  loved, 
could,    2.  You     niight,     could,    2 
should  would,    or    should 

have  been  loved, 
could,    3.  They    might,    could,    3 
should  would,     or    should 

have  been  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT    TENSE. 

Common  Form. 

Singula  I . 

1.  If  I  amloveo. 

2.  If  3'ou  are  loved. 

3.  If  he  is  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  are  loved. 

2.  If  you  are  loved. 

3.  If  they  arc  loved. 

Subjunctive  Fortn. 
Singular. 

1.  If  I  be  loved. 

2.  If  you  be  loved. 

3.  If  he  be  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  be  loved. 

2.  If  vou  he  loved. 

3.  If  they  be  loved. 

IMPERFECT    TENSE. 

Common  Form. 

Singular. 

1.  If  I  was  loved. 

2.  If  you  were  loved. 

3.  If  he  was  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  if  we  were  loved. 

2.  If  you  wore  loved. 

3.  If  tiio}'  were  loved. 


Singvlar. 

1.  I  might,  could, 
or  should 
been. 

2.  You  might, 
would,  or 
have  been. 

3.  He  might, 
would,  (rr 
have  been. 

Plural. 

1.  We  might, 
would,  or 
have  been. 

2.  You  might, 
would,  or 
have  been. 

3.  They  might, 
would,  or 
have  been. 


Siitgular 

1.  If  lam. 

2.  If  you  are. 

3.  If  he  is. 
Plural. 

1.  If  we  are. 

2.  If  you  are. 

3.  If  they  are. 

Singular. 

1.  If  I  be. 

2.  If  you  be. 

3.  If  he  be. 
Plural. 

1.  If  we  be. 

2.  If  you  be. 

3.  If  they  be. 


would, 
have 

could, 
should 

could, 
should 


could, 
should 

could, 
shoula 

could, 
should 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  was. 

2.  If  you  were. 

3.  If  he  was. 
Plural. 

1.  If  we  were. 

2.  If  you  were. 

3.  If  llicy  were. 


Will  you  conjugate  love  in  like  nian- 
niir,  throu"li  ench  person  ami  voice  of 
the  pinperfect.'  first  and  bccoiuI  futiires.' 
prtjsenl  potential.'  imperfect .'  perfect .' 
pluperfect .''  present  suhjnnclive,  com- 
mon form.'  subjunctive  form  i"  imperfect, 
e«mmon  form  .'  subjunctive  form  f  per- 
fect.'  pluperfocl.'  first  and  second  fu- 
ture! 


VV^ill  you  conjugate  lore  in  the  present 
indicative  active.'  imperfect?  pi^rfect.' 
plu|)orfect  ?  first  and  second  futures  .' 
present  passive  .'  imperfect  .'  perfect  .' 
pluperfect  .'  first  and  second  futures  .' 
present  indicative  of  to  be7  imperfect.' 
perfect.'  pluperfect.'  first  and  second  fu- 


■I'KNSES. 


73 


Singular 

1.  If  1  loved. 

2.  If  you  loved. 

3.  If  he  loved. 

I'hcral. 

1 .  If  we  loved. 

2.  If  3'ou  loved. 

3.  If  Uiey  loved. 


Subjunctive  Form. 

Siniiii/ar. 

1.  If  I  were  loved. 

2.  If  you  were  loved. 

3.  If  he  were  loved. 

Flurol. 

1.  If  we  were  loved. 

2.  If  you  were  loved. 

3.  If  they  were  loved. 


Singular 

1.  If  I  were 

2.  If  you  were. 

3.  If  he  were. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  were. 

2.  If  you  were. 

3.  If  they  were 


77i<?  remaining  teiises  are  all  of  the  Common  Form. 


Sitiguliir. 

1.  If  I  have  loved. 

2.  If  you  have  loved. 

3.  If  he  has  loveii. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  have  loved. 

2.  If  you  have  loved. 

3.  If  they  have  loved. 


Singular. 

1.  Iflhad'Toved. 

2.  If  you  had  loved. 

3.  If  he  had  loved. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  had  loved. 

2.  If  you  had  loved. 

3.  Iflhey  hadlc^ed. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will  love 

2.  If  you   shall   or   wiL 

love. 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  love 


PERFECT    TENSE. 

Sitt^nlar. 
If  I  have  been  loved. 
If    3'ou     have    been 

loved. 
If  he  has  been  loved. 

Plural. 
If   we      have      been 
loved. 

have     been 


2.  If    you 

loved. 

3.  If    they    have     been 

loved. 

PLUPERFECT    TENSE. 
Singular. 

1.  If  I  had  been  loved.   1 

2.  If  you  had  been  loved.  2 

3.  If  he  had  been  loved.   3 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  had  been  loved.  1, 

2.  If  you  had  been  lov-  2 

ed.  3 

3.  If  they  had  been  loved. 

FIRST    FUTURE    TENSE. 

Sincrular. 

1.  If  I  shall  or  will   be     1. 

loved.  2. 

2.  If  you  shall  or  will  be 

loved.  3 

3.  If  he  shall  or  will  be 

loved. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  have  been. 

2.  If  you  have  been 

3.  If  he  has  been. 

Plural. 
I    If  we  have  been. 

2.  If  you  have  been 

3.  If  they  have  been. 


Singular, 
If  I  had  been. 
Lf  you  had  beeni 
If  he  had  been. 

Plural. 
If  we  had  been. 
If  you  had  been. 
If  they  had  beetti 


Sins:ular. 
If  I  shall  or  will  be. 
If  you   shall    or   will 

be. 
If  he  shall  or  will  be. 


Will  you  conjugate  lore,  through  each 
person  of  tlie  present  indicative  active  .' 
passive?  tlio  neuter  verb  to  ic?  also  in 
the  imperfect .'  perfect .'  pluperfect .-'  first 
and  second  futures.'  present  potential.'' 
imperfect.''  perfect.'  pluperfect.'  present 
•  ubjunctive,  in  both  forms.'  perfect.' 
pluperfect.'  first  and  second  futures  .' 

What  is  the  present  infinitive  active  of 
loMC?  present  passive.'  present  of fo  6c? 
perfect  active  of  lore  1  perfect  passive  .' 
perfect  of  toie?  present  participle  active 
of  lone  1  present  passive  .'  present  of  to 
bet  perfect  of  lore!  perfect  of  to  be! 
compound  perfect  of  love,  in  the  active  .' 
in  the  passive  of  (o  be  ? 

In  what  voice  and  mood  is  "  I  love"  .' 
"  They  love"  .'  "  They  aie  loved"  .'  "  Are 
they  loved  .'"  "  I  do  love"  .'  What  is  the 
force  of  dot  In  what  voice  and  mood  is 
"  The  man  loved"  .'    "  He  has  loved"  .' 


"He  has  been  loved".'  "Has  ha  'Jcn 
loved  .'"  "  She  had  loved".'  "Phft  Aad 
been  loved".'  "  We  shall  love"?  '  We 
shall  bo  loved"  ?  "  Shall  I  have  iren 
loved  ?"  "  May  I  love  ?"  "  May  I  be 
loved?"  "  She  may  have  loved"?  '  Sl.e 
may  have  been  loved"  ?  "  If  I  lo  e"  ? 
"  If  he  be  loved"  ?  "  If  he  is  loved":  '  If 
I  love"?  "If  I  were  loved"?  "Ifl  na^ 
loved"  ? 

In  what  tense  is  "  They  love"  ?  '  Ye 
are  loved"  ?  "  She  did  love"  ?  "  We  were 
loved"  ?  "  They  shall  love"  ?  "  Thoy 
shall  be  loved"  ?  "  I  may  be  loved"  ? 
"If she  has  been  loved"? 

In  what  nuii.oer  and  person  is  "  I 
love"?  "  We  love"?  "  He  does  love"  ? 
"  The  man  did  love"  ?  "  The  men  were 
loved"?  "  If  lie  love"?  "If  I  was"? 
"  If  I  were"?  "  If  ye  have  been"  ?  "  If 
ye  have  loved"?    "  You  may  be  loved"  i 


76 


ENGLISH  GRAMftlAR 


Plural.  Phiral. 

1.  If  we    shall  or  will     1.  If  we  shall  or  will  be 

love.  loved. 

2.  If  yon  shall  or  will    2.  If  jou  shall  o/\vill  be 

love.  loved. 

3.  If  ihey  shnll  or  will     3.  If  lliey  shall   or  will 

love.  be  loved. 


Phiral. 
If  we  shall  or  will  be. 
If  you  shall  or  will 

be. 
If  they  shall  or  will 

be. 


SECOND    FITTURE    TENSE. 


Singular. 

1 .  If  I  shall  have  loved. 

2.  If  you  shall  have  lov- 

ed. 

3.  If  ho  shall  have  loved. 


Plural. 

1.  If  we  shall  have  lov- 

ed. 

2.  If  you  shall  have  lov- 

ed. 

3.  If   they    shall    have 

loved. 


Singular. 

1.  If  I  shall  have  been     1. 

loved.  2. 

2.  If  you  shall  have  been 

loved.  3. 

3.  If  he  shall  have  been 

loved. 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  shall  have  been     1. 

loved.  2. 

2.  If  you  shall  have  been 

loved.  3 

3.  If    they    shall    have 

been  loved. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 


Singular. 
If  I  shall  have  been.  ' 
If    j'ou     shall    have 

been. 
If  he  shall  have  been. 


Phiral, 
If  we  shall  have  been. 
If    you    shall    have 

been. 
If    they    shall    have 

been. 


PRESENT    TENSE. 

Singular. 

2.  Be  you  loved,  or  do 

you  be  loved. 

Plural. 

2.  Be  you  loved,  or  do 

you  be  loved. 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  To  be  loved. 
Per/.  To  have  been  lov- 
ed. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Prcs.  Being  loved. 
Perf.  Loved. 
Compound  Perf.    Hav- 
ing been  loved. 

536.  For  the  benefit  of  those  who  wish  to  retain  the  pronoun  thou,  in  the 
conjugation  of  verbs,  the  following  sj'nopsis  is  given.  The  pupil  can  take  it 
separately,  or  be  taught  it  in  connection  with  the  other  persons  of  the  verb,  by 
substituting  thou  for  ijoii,  in  tlie  foregoing  conjugation. 


Singular. 
2.  Lo\e  you,  or  do  you 
love. 

Plural. 
2.  Love  you,  or  do  you 
love. 


Pres.  To  love. 
Perf.  To  have  loved. 


Pres.  Loving. 
Perf.  Loved. 
Compound  Perf.    Hav- 
ing loved. 


Singular. 
Be  you,  or  do  you  be. 

Plural. 
Be  3'ou,  or  do  you  be. 


Pres.  To  be. 

Perf.  To  have  been. 


Pres.  Being. 
l^eif.  Been. 
Compound  Perf.    Hav- 
ing been. 


Is  lave,  as,  "They  love,"  a  regular  or 
irregular  verb  .'  why.'  533.  active  or  pas- 
give  ?  439.  What  mood  is  it  in  .■■  why  .' 
4.52.  tense.'  why.'  482.  numhev.'  person? 
What  does  love  asree  with  .'  Rule  VII. 

Is  are,  as,  "  They  arej"  a  regular  or 
irregular  verb.'  why.'  S34.  passive  or 
neuter.'  why.'  450.  What  mood  is  it  in.' 
why.'  452.  tense.'  why  ?  482.  number.' 
person.'     Rule  for  its  agreement .'    VI  [. 

What  is  the  piessnt  imperative  odove  7 
present  infinitive.' 

What  mood  and  tense  is  "  Love  you"  .' 
is  "To  have  been  loved"  .' 

Will  you  conjugate  learn  in  the  present 
indicative  active.'  passive.'  perfect  act- 
ive.' perfect  passive.'  present  potential 
a  iive  .'  passive .'   imperfect  active .'   pas- 


sive.' imperative  present  active.'  passive.' 
perfect  infinitive  active.'  passive?  present 
subjunctive  active  in  both  forms?  passive? 
periect  infinitive?  future  active?  passive? 
What  kind  of  verb  (that  is,  regular  or 
irregular),  what  voice,  mood,  tense,  num- 
ber, and  parson  is  "  I  sing"  ?  "We  are 
formed"?  "He  is"?  "You  are  deter- 
mined"? "  It  rains"  ?  "  It  has  happen- 
ed" ?  "  The  man  was  respected"  ?  "Tho 
boys  did  study"?  "  If  ho  improve"?  "Un- 
less he  repent"?  "Although  she  be  dis- 
appointed"? "  lie  may  depart"  ?  "De- 
part now'"?  "To  love"?  "To  sing"? 
"To  be  sung"?  "To  rejoice"?  "To  have 
wept"  ?  "  To  have  been  seen"  '  "  To  have 
been  found"? 


TENSES. 


77 


Pres. 
Imp. 
Perf. 
Plup. 

1  Put. 

"Z  Put. 


Thou  lovost. 
Thou  lovedst. 
Thou  liasl  loved. 
Thou  hadsl  lov 

ed. 
Thou     shall    or 

wilt  love 
Thou   wilt   have 

loved. 


Synopsis  vnth  Thou. 
INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Tliou  art  loved. 
'J'hou  want  loved. 
Thou  hast  been  loved. 
Thou  liailst  Ijeeii  loved. 


'I'hou  art. 
Thou  wast. 
'J'hou  hast  been. 
Thou  hadst  been. 


Thou    slialt  or 

loved. 
Thou    wilt    have 

loved. 


wilt    be     Thou  shall  or  will  be. 
Thou  will  have  ')een. 


been 


iniglitst, 
couldst,  wouldst  or 
shouklst  love. 

Perf.  Thou  mayst  or 
canst  have  loved. 

Plup.  Thou  mighUs;, 
couldsl,  wouldst,  or 
shouldst  have  loved. 


537.  POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Pres.     Thou    mayst  or     Tliou  niayst  or  canst  be    Thou  uia^'st  or  canst  be. 

canst  love.  loved. 

Imp.       Thou      miglitst,     Thou    niightst,    couldsl, 
wouldst,    or    shouldst 
be  loved. 
Thou    mayst    or    canst 

have  been  loved. 
Tliou    mighlst,    couldst.     Thou    miglilst,    couldsl, 
wouldst,     nr    shouldst         wouldst,    or    shouldst 
have  been  loved.  have  be«!i>. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

Common  Form. 
If  thou  art  lovetl. 
If  thou  wast  loved. 

Subjunctive  Form. 
If  thou  be  loved.  If  thou  be. 

If  thou  wert  loved.  If  thou  wert. 

Common  Form. 
If  thou  hast  l>pen  loved.       If  thou  hast  been. 
If  thou  hadsl  l)eeii  loved.     If  thou  hadsl  been. 


538. 

Pres.  If  tliou  lovesl. 
Imp.    If  thou  lovedst. 

539. 

Pres.  If  thou  love. 
Imp.    If  thou  loved. 

540. 

Per/.  If  thou  hasi  loved. 

Plup.  If  thou  hadst  lov- 
ed. 

)  Flit.  If  tliou  shall  nr 
vvi)»  I'n'e.  ~ 

2  Fi/t.  If  thou  shall  have 
loved. 


Thou  miglilst,  couldst, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst 
be. 

Tliou  mayst  or  cansJ 
have  been. 


If  thou  art. 
If  (hou  wast. 


If  lliou  shall  or  wilt  be 

loved. 
If  thou  shall  have  been 

loved. 


If  ihou  shah  or  wilt  be. 
If  thou  shall  have  been. 


541. 

Sirigular. 

1.  Do  I  love? 

2.  Do  you  love  ? 

3.  Does  he  love  / 

Plural. 

1.  Do  we  love  ? 

2.  Do  you  love  ? 

3.  Do  they  love  ? 


Interrogative  Form. 
INDICATIVE  PRESENT 

Shi"-n/ar. 

1.  Am  I  loved? 

2.  Are  you  Icved  7 


3.  Is  he  loved  ? 

Ph/ral. 

1.  Are  we  loved  ? 

2.  Are  you  loved  ? 

3.  Arc  they  loved  ? 
51-2.  You  will  find,  on   cxamiiiation  of  the  foregoius^  conjugation,  that  the 

tenses  of  the  subjunctive  are  in  e\cr}'  resp«ct  similar  to  the  corresponding  ones 
of  the  indicative,  except  the  following,  namely,  the  present  and  imperfect 
Will  you  give  the  synopsis  of  (oie  jniiiml     like  mamicr  throii^li  the  [ins^iive?  also  the 


Singular. 

1.  Am  I? 

2.  A  re  you  ? 
3-.  Is  he  ? 

Plural. 

1.  Are  we  ? 

2.  A  re  3'ou  ? 

3.  Are  they' 


with  thou  through  tlie  indicative  active  1 
passive?    Neuter  verb  (o  ie? 

Will  you  name  the  synopsis  of  Ir/irn  in 
the  first  pcrsoi  in  the  active  voice,  through 
each  mood  and  tense .'  Will  you  repeat 
Ine  two  lenses  of  the  infinitive  and  tlio 
tflreo  participles  .'    Synopsis  of  honor,  in 

7* 


synopsis  of  the  verb  to  bel  (iive  the  synop- 
sis of  desire  in  the  active,  like  love ;  in  tha 
passive  ;  verb  to  be ;  first  person  plural 
active  ;  passive  ;  to  be  ;  third  person  act- 
ive ;  passive  ;  to  be. 

What  mood  does  the  subjunctive  rescnj' 
b!e  in  its  tenses?  543,  * 


■'^  ENGLISH  ,GRAiVliMAR. 

of  ihc  verb  lo  be ;  the  present  aud  imperfect  of  the  passive]  the  present  aiid 
the  second  future  active.  Tlie  last,  however,  corresponc's  in  termination,  but 
not  in  fonnalion.  Among  tiie  exceptions  should  be  rec.»oncd  the  use  of  the 
conjunction  if.  There  are  instances,  however,  of  the  subjunctive  form,  when 
no  conjunction  is  expressed,  but  in  all  such  cases  it  is  plainly  understood  ;  as, 
"  Were  I  to  go,  he  would  not  follow;"  '■  Had  he  laiown  me,  he  would  have 
tre.-iic.l  rue  dilfcrenll}' ;"  that  is,  "  If  I  were  to  go,"  and  "  If  he  had  known." 
Examples  of  this  description  are  conjugated  as  follows  : 

SUBJUNCTIVE  FORM. 

54>i.  IMPERFECT    TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Were  I.  I.  Were  we. 

2.  Were  you.  2.  Were  you. 

3.  Were  he.  3.  Were  they. 

FLUPEUrECT    TENSE, 

Siijcculur.  Plural. 

1.  Had  I  loved.  1.  Had  we  loved: 

2.  Had  j'ou  loved.  2.  Had  you  loved. 

3.  Had  he  loved.  3.  Had  they  loved. 

514.  The  second  person  singular  of  all  verbs*  formerly  (1.)  ended  last; 
as,  •'  Thou  hast,"  "  Thou  wast,"  «fcc.  This  form  is  still  retained  by  that  re- 
spectable class  of  persons  denominated  (2.)  Friends,  aud  in  the  Sacred  (3.) 
Scriptures.  (3.) 

5!5.  Eth,  for  the  termination  of  the  mird  person  singular,  obtained  (4.)  very 
generally  till  within  a  recent  (5.)  period,  especially  on  grave  (6.)  and  diaaclic  (7.) 
subjects  ;  as,  "  He  that  hath  cars  to  hear,  let  him  hear  ;"  "  Simple  multiplica- 
tion teacheth  to  repeat,"  &c.  But  the  custom  of  the  present  day  is  decid- 
edly (8.)  against  the  usage.  (9.) 

5i6.  The  Scriptures  abound  (10.)  with  Instances  of  the  use  of  the  pronotm 
yi  f(^r  you ;  as,  "  Ye  are  the  salt  of  the  earth  ;"  but  it  is  scarcely  to  be  met 
v.  ill',  i;!  any  stanilard  works  of  modern  date. 

Oil.  'I'lic  fcliowing  conjugation  accords  \vith  the  ancient  usage  of  the  verb. 

INDICATIVE  PRESENT. 

Singular.        '  i^itigular.  Siiigular. 

1.  I  love.  1.  I  am  loved.  1.  lam. 

2.  Thou  lovest.  2.  Thou  art  loved.  2.  Thou  art. 

3.  He  loveth  or  loves.         3.  He  is  loved.  3.  He  is. 

Wliit  oxcoption? .'  5K.  By  whom  is   this  termination  still  re- 

Ilnw  Jiies  the  si'CoikI  future  (lifter .'  .'512.  taiiierl.?  54-1.     In  what  writings  .'  544. 

^Vil!  j'ou  explain  till)  differoiicc.'  542.  Mcawiag  of  Sacred  Scriptures  7  544. 

^Vhat  is   the   s'\gn  of   the  suhjnnctive  AViiat  form  of  the  third  person  singular 

mood.''  51G.    Is  it  aKvays  expressed?  512.  obtained  till  recently?  545.     Give  an  ox- 

Oivo  an  ex-.imple.  542.     Will  jou  supply  ample.  545. 

the  conjunetion  ?  Meaning  of  oftfained?  545.     Ol  recent  7 

Will  you  conjugato  the  veih  lo  be  in  llio  545. 

Bubjunclivc  mood,  imperfect  tense,  without  On  what  subjects  was  the  termination 

its  usual  sign  ?     In  like  manner  conjugate  etii  used  iu  writing  ?  5 15, 

/ytc  in  the  i)luperfect.  Meaning  of  oraKe?  of  didactic?  515. 

'iViil  you  conjugate  Zero  in  the  present  In  what  writings  do  we  find  ye  used  for 

KClivi!,  intcirugative  form?  passive?  neu-  you7  51G. 

tcr  verb  tu  be  ?  Is  it  common  in  modern  works  r  546. 

In   what   voice,   mood,    tenso,  number  Will  you  conjugate  lone  in  the  present 

and  ]>orson  is  "Do  I  study?"    "  Did  she  active,  aceording  to  lliO  ancient  usage? 

stu.iy  ?"  "  Were  tlicy  dismissed  ?"  "Ate  517.  passive?  ncutor  verb  <o  Je? 

vvf!?"  In   what  number  and   per.wn   is  "  He 

In  what  did  the  second  pi^rson  singular  hath"?  "He  hates"?   "Thou  lovest"? 

of  all  vcrlK  formerly  ead?  544.     Give  an  "Thou  hast"?    "He   learnetb"  ?    "Ye 

«;.\amp!o.  544.  learn"  ?    He  rojoicetli"  ?   "  Thou  art  re- 
Moaning  of/ormcHi/?  514.  joiccd"?  "Thou  art"?  "He  weepeth"? 

*  F.xcqiline  art. 

(l.)S.v,„etiniea50.         (2.)  Called.         (3.)  Tliu  Bible.         (4.)  Prevailed.         (3.)  Late.          (6.)  Seriouj. 

{7.) -•it'dundingin  precejita,  or  instruclivc.       (8.)  Positively.       (9.)  Use.        (10.)  Have  miuy. 


VERBS.  79 

Plural.  Plural.  Plural. 

1  We  love.  1.  We  are  loved.  1.  We  arc. 

2  Ye  01-  you  love.  2.  Ye  or  3'ou  are  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  are. 

3  They  love.  3.  Tlioy  are  loved.  3.  'I'licy  are. 

648.  [HT'For  a  further  illustration  of  these  obsolete  coiiju;;;ations,  Ihelearne. 
is  referred  to  those  treatises  on  grammar  in  our  schools,  which  pro/ess  to  fur- 
ni,«h  him  with  a  sure  and  infallible  guide  to  the  true  and  proper  use  of  the 
Engli.sh  language. 

The  nominative  case  governs  the  verb  in  number  and 
person. 

HULS  irii. 

A  Verb  must  agree  with  its  jiomittative  case  in  number 
and  jperson. 

Active-transitive  verbs  govern  the  objective  case. 

EXERCISES  IN  PARSING. 
"  William  teas  admired  for  his  prudence." 
549.  William  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  third  person,  sin- 
gular    NUMBER,    MASCULINE    GENDER,    and    in   tllO     NOMINATIVE 

CASE  to  was  admired,  agreeably  to  Rule  VI. 

Was  admired  is  a  regular  passive  verb,  from  t!ie  verb  to 
admire — "  Prcs.  admire  ;  Imp.  admired  ;  Per/,  jmrt.  admired.  1.  I 
was  admired  ;  9.  You  Avere  admired  ;  3.  He  or  William  Avas  ad- 
mired"— made  ia  the  indicative  mood,  iimferfect  tense, 
THIRD  person,  SINGULAR  NUMBER,  aiid  Rgrecs  with  WilUavi, 
according  to  Rule  VII. 

For  is  a  preposition. 

His  is  a  PERSONAL  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular 
NUMBER,  masculine  GENDER,  and  RgTees  Avith  William,  accord- 
ing to  Rule  V. — 'Worn,  he  ;  Poss.  his" — made  in  tiie  possessive 
cask,  and  governed  hy  prudenre,  by  Rule  I. 

Prudence  is  a  comjion  noun,  of  the  third  PERSOiN,'siNGULAR 
.vuMBEii,  NEUTER  GENDER,  OBJECTIVE  CASE,  and  governod  by 
for,  by  Rule  X. 

EXERCISES    IN     PAKSING    CONTINUED. 

"  John  was  applauded  for  his  clo-  "  The  girl  was  ridiculed  by  her 
queiice."  companions." 

"  The  king  v/as  crowned  at  West-  "  Susan  v/as  respected  for  her  vir- 
uiinst'er  Abbey."  tuous  conduct. 

"  Thomas  has  been  esteemed."  '•'  James  will  be   rewarded  by  his 

"  The  bushicsswill  be  resulatcd."  instructor." 


"  .\d.litioii  teacheth"'    "  lie   that  halh  was  admiredl  549.   fori  549.    his 7  549. 

ears"  ?     ''  llu    that    sinneth"  .'     "  Thou  prudence  ?  549. 

lovo'.lst"  ?       "  Tliou     mightst,     couldst,        What  is  a  passive  verb .'    44-1.     How 

wouldst,  or  slioulilst  liavs  laineiitod"?  formed.'   510.     Why  is  admired  regular? 

Wliat  is  the  rule  for  tlio  agveement  of  533. 
t!uj  vRil).'  rule  for  the  nominative.'  rule        Why  is /i;r  a  preposition ?    246.     Why 

by  which  verbs  govern  tlie  objactive  case .'  is  his  a  pronoun .' 

"William  was   admired  for  his    pra-        Will  you  now  paise  the  remaining  ex 

donee."    Wil!  you  purse  WiUiaml   549.  ercises,' 


80 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


2. 
"  We  may  be  esteemed."  "  Justice  may  have  been  stayed." 

"  He  might  have  been  promoted."    "  The  task  must  be  performed." 
"  William   would  have   been  de-    "  We  should  not  (1.)  be  easily  (1.) 
throned."  disheartened  in  a  good  cause." 

"  TfAe  he  learned." 

550.  If  is  a.  COPULATIVE  conjunction. 

Be  learned  is  a  regular  passive  verb,  from  the  verb  to  learn 
— "  Pi-es.  learn  ;  Imper.  learned  ;  Perf.  part,  learned.  1.  If  I  be 
learned  ;  2.  If  you  be  learned  ;  3.  If  he  be  learned" — made  in 
the  subjunctive  mood,  subjunctive  form,  present  tense, 
THIRD  person,  SINGULAR  NUMBER,  and  agrecs  with  he,  accord- 
ing to  Rule  VII. 

EXERCISES    IN    SVNTAX     CONTINUED. 

Although    you    will    be    disap- 


2. 


"  It' John  be  rewarded." 
"  If  I  am  noticed."  v..^^^/ 

•'  Unless  he  be  punished." 
"  Although  they  are  respected." 
"  Columbus  discovered  America." 
"  America  was  discovered  by  Co- 
lumbus." 
"  John  wounded  his  brother." 
"  John's  brother  was  wounded  by 
him." 

"  An  obedient  son  is  deservedly 

respected  by  his  friends." 

"  An  idle  boy  will  be  punished." 

"  Without   knowledge,   a    man   is 

commonly  (1.)  despised." 


3. 

The  boy  who  visited  me  in  Sep- 
tember died  in  the  city  of  Bos- 
ton." 
'  The  man  whom  1  found  perished 
in  a  storm  of  snow." 

.4. 
■  I  found(2.)  John  and  William  (3.) 
in  the  garden  with  their  father 
and  mother.  (3.) 


you 

pointed."  . 
If  the  man  had  been  elected  " 
Except  he  repent." 
Susan  assisted  the  little  girl." 
The   Utile   girl   was  assisted  by 

Susan." 
Pain  follows  pleasure." 
Pleasure  is  followed  by  pain." 


"  Unless  great  labor  had  been  be- 
stowed on  William,  he  would 
have  disappointed  the  expec- 
tations of  his  parents." 

"He  will  not(l.)  mind  without 
corporal  punishment." 

"  They  that  seek  knowledge  will 

find  it." 
"  That  lion  which  was  exhibited 

in   this  town  has  been  killed 

by  his  keeper." 

"  I  have  assisted  him  and  his  sister 
in  many  difficulties,  to  no  (4.) 
purpose." 


XLVI.  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

551.  Irregular  verbs  are  those  which  do  not  form  their 
imperfect  tense  and  perfect  participle  by  the  addition  off/  or 
ed  to  the  present  tense  ;  as. 


"  If  he  lie  learned."  Will  you  parse  if! 
550.  be  learned  ?  550.  Why  in  the  sub- 
jqnctive  mood.'  456. 


Why  in  the  subjunctive  form  .'  463. 
Will  you  parso  the  remaining  exercise* 

in  these  lessons .'' 


fl,)  tdvcrb        (2.)  IrreguUr  verb,       (3.)  For  IfTOiam  and  7/Kj(/Kr  aiiply  Rule  XI.       (4.)  AdjectW*. 


JPres.  IcH^e. 
Go, 
Begin, 


IRJlEGL/LAli  VERBS. 

Iinperf.  tense. 
Went, 
Be.fr;in. 


81 


l^crf.  Participle. 
Gone. 
Begun. 


Imfcrfcjct 
abocie, 


Pt-cscnl. 
Abide, 
Ai:i, 

Ariie,  arose, 

Anakc,  awoke, 

uear,  to  bring  ) , 
*,.,*i,  >  rare. 


I.IST    or   liiREGULAR   VERBS. 

Tliosc  marked  ;•  athnit  likewise  a  recular  rorm. 


Paf.  a-  Pass.  Pari. 


Pcif.  or 
abode, 


forth, 
Oear,  to  carry. 
Beat, 
Besin, 
Beud, 
Bereave, 
Besecel}, 
Rid, 
BinJ, 
Bite, 
Bleed, 
Blaw, 
Break, 
Breed, 
Briiij, 
EuiJJ, 
Burst, 
Buy, 
Cast, 
Catcll, 
Chide, 
Choose, 
Cleave,  I'D  stuA 

&r  adhere,       _, 
Cleave,  to  split,    clove  or  cleft, 
Cling,  clung, 

Clothe,  clothed, 

Come,  canie, 

Cost,  cost, 

Crow,  crew,  r. 

Creep,  crept, 

Cut,  cut. 

Dare,  ic  venture,  durat, 
Dare,    to  chat-  > 


bore, 

(Kat, 

begau, 

tent, 

bereft,  r. 

besought, 

bid,  bade, 

bound, 

bit, 

bled, 

blew, 

broke, 

bred, 

brought, 

built, 

burst, 

bought, 

cast, 

caught,  r. 

chid, 

chose, 

regular. 


Do, 

Draw, 

Drive, 

Drink, 

Dwell, 

Eat, 

Fall, 

Fee-J, 

Feel, 

Fight, 

Find, 

Flee, 

Fling, 

FIv, 

Forget, 

Forsake, 

Freeze, 

Get, 

Gild, 

Gii-d, 

Give, 


Grind, 


dealt,  r. 

dug,  r. 

did, 

drew, 

drove, 

drank, 

dwell,  r. 

eat  or  ale, 

fell, 

fed, 

felt, 

fought, 

found, 

fled, 

flun;, 

forgot, 

foi-soofc, 

froze, 

got, 

gilt,  r. 

girt,  r. 

gave, 

went, 

graved, 

ground, 

grew, 

had, 


borue. 

beaten,  heal. 

begun. 

bent. 

bereft,  r. 

besought. 

bidden,  bid. 

bound. 

bitten,  bit. 

bled. 

blown. 

broken. 

bred. 

brought. 

built. 

burst, 

bought. 

cast. 

caught,  r. 

chidden,  chid. 

chosen. 


cleft,  cloveu. 

clung. 

clad,  r, 

come. 

cost. 

crowed. 

crept. 

cut. 


daied. 


dealt,  r. 
dug.  r. 
done. 


drunk. 

dwelt,  r. 

eaten. 

fallen. 

fed. 

felt. 

fought. 

found. 

fled. 

forgotten,  forgot. 

forsaken. 

frozen. 

got.* 

gilt.  r. 

girt.  r. 

given. 

gone. 

graven,  r. 

ground. 

grown. 

had. 


Lie,  to  tie  tiow; 


Jmpafcct. 

hung,  r. 

lieard, 

hewul, 

hid, 

hit, 

held, 

hurt, 

kept, 

knit,  r. 

knew, 

laded, 

laid, 

leil, 
left, 
lent, 
let, 
,liy, 
loaded, 
lost, 
made, 
met, 
mowed, 
paid, 
put, 
read, 
rent, 
rid, 
rode, 

rung,  rang, 
rose, 
rived, 
ran, 
saw, 
said, 

sought, 

sold. 

sent, 

set, 

sliook, 

shai)eJ, 

shaved, 

sbeared, 

shed, 

shone,  V. 

showed, 

shod, 

shot, 

shrunk, 

shred, 

shut, 

sung,  sang, 

sunk,  sank, 

sat, 

slew, 

slept, 

slid, 

sluug, 

slunk, 

slit.  r. 

smote, 

5.med, 

spoke, 

sped, 

spent, 

spilt,  r. 

spin,  • 

spit,  spat. 


Faf.  wVass.Pwt. 

hung.  r. 

heard. 

liew'i.  r. 

hidden,  hiJ. 

hit. 

held. 

hurt. 

kept. 

knit,  r. 

known. 

laden. 

laid. 

led. 

left. 

lent. 

let. 

Iain. 

laden,  r. 

lost. 

made. 

met. 

Diown.  r. 

paid. 

put. 

read. 

rent. 

rid. 

rode,  ridden. 

rung. 

risen. 

riven. 

run. 

sawn.  r. 

said. 

seen. 

souffhf. 

sold. 

sent. 

set. 

shaken. 

shaped,  shapen. r 

shaven,  r. 

shorn, 

shed. 

shone,  r, 

shown. 

shod. 

shot. 

shrunk. 

shred. 

shut. 

sung. 

suuk. 

sat. 

slain.      ^» 

slept.       ^ 

sliddcn. 

slung. 

slunk. 

slit,  or  slilted. 

smitten. 

sown.  r. 

spoken. 

sped. 

spent. 

spilt,  r. 

spun. 

spit,  spitten.t 


^^XLVr.    When  is.  verb  called  irregu-     (to  carry  )    mi    mi'i;;^^;;^;^^^^^,,, 
Will  you  name  the  present  and  imnor      ll/i   t    v     <:ftl  forgcll  have?  kmwnl 
gol    beginl    ami  arise?    awake?    bear?  wrae . 


r^  is  nSS^S^;^    •"  compound,/o,.,o«.n,  ia  s.ilUn  good  use. 

J  SfUien  It  neaily  obsolete. 


SSi 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


PraaU 

Imperfefi 

Pcrf.  or  Pom.  Part. 

Fresint. 

Imperfect. 

Ptrf.  or  Pom.  Part 

Split, 

split, 

spilt,  r. 

Take, 

toik. 

taken. 

Spread, 

spread. 

spread. 

Teacb, 

taught, 

taught. 

Spring, 

spnnig,  sprang 

sjjrung. 

Tear, 

tore. 

torn. 

Stand, 

stood, 

stood. 

Tell, 

told, 

told. 

Steal, 

stile. 

stolen. 

Think, 

thought. 

thought 

Stick, 

stuck, 

stuck. 

Thrive, 

throve,  r. 

thriven. 

Sting, 

stung, 

stung. 

Throw, 

threw, 

thrown. 

Stink, 

stunk, 

stunk. 

Thrust, 

thrust. 

thruit. 

Strida, 

strode,  or  strid, 

stridden. 

Tread, 

trod, 

trodden. 

Strike, 

struck. 

struck  or  stricken. 

Wai, 

waxed. 

waien.  r. 

String, 

strung, 

strung. 

Wear, 

wore. 

worn. 

Strive, 

strove. 

stiiven. 

Weave, 

wove, 

woven. 

Strowo.  strew,  p'™-;"- 

J  strjwn,  strowed, 
i      strewed. 

Weep, 

Win, 

wept, 
won. 

wept. 

Swear, 

swore 

sworn. 

Wind, 

wound. 

wound. 

Sweat, 
Swell, 

swct,  r. 
swelK-d, 

swet.  r. 
swollen,  r. 

Work, 

wrought, 

}  wrought  or 
<     worked. 

Swim, 

swum,  swatn, 

swum. 

Wring, 

wrung. 

wning. 

Swing, 

swung, 

swung. 

Write, 

wrote. 

written. 

533.  We  sa\',  "  I  have  seen,"  "  I  had  seen,"  and  "  1  am  seen,"  using  the 
participle  seen  instead  of  the  verb  saw  :  hence, 

Note  VI.  We  sliould  use  participles,  only,  after  Aat?c,  and 
had,  and  the  verb  to  be. 

EXEkCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

'^  John  has  torittcn  Ms  copy." 

554.  Han  u'rjtten  i.s  an  irregular  active-transitive  verb, 
from  the  verb  to  ivritc — "  Pres.  write  ;  Imperf.  wrote  ;  Perf.  part. 
written.  1.  I  have  written  ;  2.  You  have  written  ;  3,  He  or  John 
hag  written" — found  in  the  indicative  mood,  perfect  tense, 
THIRD  PERSON,  SINGULAR  NUMBER,  and  agrecs  with  John,hy 
Rule  VII. 

John,  copy,  and  his  are  parsed  as  before. 

EXERCISES    IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 
1. 

"  Job  has  struciv  John." 

"  John  has  been  struck  by  Job." 


The  men  cau^ 

tavern." 
The    thief  was   c aught 

men  in  the  tavern." 
A  wise    son    will   makf 

Cither." 
The  act  was  done  by  Williai 


ht  the  thief  in  the 
by  the 
a  glad 


"  James  found  his  little  brother  in 

the  boat." 
"  The     instructer     makes     good 

pens." 
"  The  farmer  ploughs  the  ground 

in  spring." 
"  I    may  spend   my  time   in   the 

country." 


\V0\  you  correct,  in  accordanco  with 
NoTK  VI.,  tlie  following  e.vamples  from 
the  fct  above  ? 

".lohii  lias  wrote." 

"  lie  (lone  it  well." 

"  The  sun  hag  rose.  ' 

"The  sun  risen  yesterday  in  a  cloud." 

"  I  see  him  yesterday." 

"  He  has  did  his  task." 

"  The  hirds  have  Hew  away." 

"'J'he  hirds  flown  or  flew." 

''  The  post  is  drove  into  the  ground." 

"  He  be<jaii  or  heirini  to  write." 

"  The  task  is  began." 

"  I  had  went  with  hiin." 

"  My  brother  has  not  sjioke." 

"  The  cloth  is  wove." 

"  The  boys  run  swiftly." 

"The  thief  has  alulc  my  watch." 


"  Fits  copy  was  wrote  well." 

"He  was  smote  on  his  check." 

"John  was  awoke  by  the  noise." 

"  My  fatlier  has  came." 

"  He  come  yesterday." 

"  Mary  has  chose  the  better  part." 

"  He  (irunk  to  excess." 

''  The  book  was  gave  to  me." 

"  His  friends  have  forsook  him." 

"  He  was  not  forsook  by  his  children.' 

"The    laborer    worked     for    me    forty 

days." 

"  Ho  was  took  and  bound." 

"John   lias   written   his  copy."     Will 

you  parse  has  written'^ 

Why  is  has  wrilten  an  irregular  verb.' 

.551.    Why  active  ?  439.  Why  transitive ' 

440, 


EXERCISES.  83 

2. 

"  John  is  at  home."  "  He  abode  in  peace." 

"  Rufus  rode  into  the  country."  "  They  would  be  cruel." 

"  The  sun  will  shine."  "  Wc  may  have  been  negligent." 

"  The  thief  was  confined  in  jail."  "  The  boys  should  have  been  stu- 

"  The  horse  ran  with   great  vio-  dious." 

lenoe."  "  William  was  in  town." 
3. 

"  If  he  will  assist  me,  I  shall  be  faults,  still  he  would  not  recom- 

much  (1.)  obliged  to  him."  pense  ine." 

"  If  he  be  virtuous,  then  he  will  "  I  will  write  him,  lest  he  neglect 

be  happy."  my  business." 

"  If  he  is  happy,  then  I  am  con-  "  Should  I  be  disappointed,  I  shall 

tented."  despair." 

"  Had  he  mentioned  that  circum-  "  Unless  he  repent,  he  will  not  be 

stance,  I  should  have  avoided  pardoned." 

my  present  calamities."  "  Were  I*  in  your  place,  I  would 

"  Although  he  acknowledged  his  relieve  him." 

4. 

"  Thou  hast  benefited  me."  "  Dost  thou  hear  me  .'" 

"  Ye  make  no  pretensions."  "  Hath  he  many  advisers  ?" 

"  This  doctrine   hath   no  follow-  "  Ye  do  always  err." 

ers."  "  Thou  shalt  surely  die." 

"  If  thou  love  me."  "  If  thou  hadst  obeyed  me,  thou 

"  If  thou  art  more  comfortable,  I  wouldst  not  have  been  disap- 

heartily  rejoice."  pointed." 
5. 

"  If  Thomas,  wlio    is    at   school,  "  The  task  which  tlie  instructor 

return  in  season,  I  will  visit  imposed  was  performed  with 


yoi 


reluctance." 


"  The  boys  whom  I  admonished  "  The  measure  which  he  adopts 
have  reformed."  will  succeed." 

•'  The  man  whose  lile  was  in  dan-  "  I  have  known  a  little  child  that 
ger  returned  in  safety."  exhibited  the  prudence  of  ma- 

ture years." 


XLVII.     GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  INFINITIVE. 

553.  When  I  say,  "  Jolm  begins  to  read,"  to  read  is  a  verb  in  the  infinitive 
mood;  and  it  follows,  as  you  perceive,  liie  verb  hcgms :  hence  ue  say  that 
it  is  governed  by  begins. 

"He  is  bepnning  to  read."  Here,  the  iiifiiillive  follows  the  participle 
hegir.  thig  ;   it  is,  therefore,  governed  by  hegiiniins^. 

"  Ue  IS  eager  to  learn."  Here,  the  infiiiilivt?  Ibllows  the  adjective  eager ; 
we  tl  .trcfore  say  that  it  i.s  governed  by  eager. 

"lie  has  an  opporininlv  to  learn  "  Here,  the  iniinilive, /o /€«."«,  is  gov- 
erned t>y  the  noun  opprir/iniili/,  because  it  follows  tiie  noun. 

In  like  manner  the  infinitive  may  be  governed  by  pronouns  ;  as,  "  There  is 
a  finf  opporluniiy  for  him  to  learn  :"   hence, 

XLVII.    "John   benin.i!   to   rnaJ."     In  "He    li.is     an   opportunity    to   Iparn.'" 

what  iTioo'l  is  to  reaill  S.'i.'i.      Why.'  479.  What   part  of  -ipwch  governs   to  learn  in 

By  what  i.s  it  governed  .'  .555.    Why.'  555.  tljis  e.xample  .'  555.     Why.'  555. 

"  Ho  ii  beginning  to  read."    What  gov-         "  ojiportuiiity  fci-  him  to  learn." 

erns  (0  ?-f«d  in  thi.s  case  .'  555.  What  does    the   infinitive    liere    follow.' 

"  He  is  eager  to  learn."    What  governs  By  what,  then,  is  it  governed  .'  555. 
to  learn  in  this  case.'  .555.     Why.'  555. 

(I.)  Adverb.  •  See  543. 


84  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

RULB    XII. 

The  infinitive  mood  may  be  governed  by  verbs,  partici- 
ples, adjectives,  nouns,  and  pronouns. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX- 
"James  begins  to  leai-n." 

556.  To  learn  is  a  regular  transitive  verb — ^^  Pres.  learn, 
Imperf.  learned  ;  Peif.  part,  learned" — made  in  the  infinitive 
MOOD,  present  tense,  and  governed  by  begins,  agreeably  to 
Rule  XII. 

James  and  begins,  are  parsed  as  before. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX  CONTINUED. 

"  George  desires  to  learn."  grammar  teaches  U3  to  write 

"  He  is  eager  to  learn."  correctly." 

"  He  has  a  desire  to  study."  "  He     should     seek     to     obtain 

"  It  seems  to  please  John."  knowledge." 

"  William  has  come  to  see  us."  "  We   may   be    taught   to    write, 

"  They  are  determined  to  excel."  read,  and  spell.  ' 

"  A  knowledge   of  the    rules    of 

Omission  of  to,  the  usual  Sign  of  the  Infinitive. 

"John    saw    the   man    strike  (1.)  "  I  lieard  the  clock  strike." 

the  boy."  "  The  tutor  bade  him  do  it." 

"  The  instructer  made   him   sub-  "  The  soldiers  dare  not  rebel." 

mit."  "  My  uncle  let  the  boys  play  in 
"  They  need  not  proceed  in  such  the  garden." 

haste."  "See  (2.)  the  blind  beggar  dance." 

Note  VII.  The  infiniiive  mood  is  sometimes  governed 
by  conjunctions  or  adverbs  ;  as,  "  The  summit  of  a  mountain 
so  high  as  to  be  invisible." 

EXAMPLES. 

"  They  are  about  (3.)  to  depart."       "  He  desired  no  more  (4.)  than  (5.; 
"  He  is  M'ise  enough  (3.)  to  study."  to  know  his  duty." 


XLVIII. 

657  We  have  before  seen,  that  participles  partake  of  the  nature  of  two 
parts  of  speecii,  namely,  verbs  and  adjectiv-es.  One  point  of  resemblance 
which  participles  have  to  adjectives,  is  in  referring  to  some  noun  in  the  sen- 
tence in  which  tiicy  are  used  ;  as,  "  The  sun  is  setting  :"  here,  the  participle 
setting  is  snid  to  refer  to  the  noun  sun  :  hence, 

What,  then,  ir.ay  !)■!   regarded  iis  ;i  rule  "  Tliey  arc  about  to  depart."     By  what 

for  the  government  oftlie  infinitive  .''  XII.  is  tlic  infinitive  hero  governed  .'  What  is 

"John     begins   to   loam."    Will   you  the  note  for  this.'  VII. 

parse  to  learn  7  James'!  beg'ms  1  556.  XLVIII.     What  is  a  participle?  498. 
Is  to  ever  omitted  ?  480.  "The  sun  is  setting."     What  is  set- 
Will  you  now  parse   the   exercises  in  tingl  5.57.     To  what,  tlien,  does  setting 

the  lessons  which  follow  .'  refer.'  557.     Rule?   XIU. 

What  is  the  infinitive  mood  used  for  ?  Will  you  now  parse  setting  in  full? 

479. 

(1.)  strike  is  governed  by  Rule  XII. 

(2.)  See  is  in  the  imperative,  agreeing  with  thoii  or  yoie,  understood,  by  Rule  VII. 

(3.)  Adverb.  (4.)  Moun.  ^5.)  CcnjunctiQD, 


PARTICIPLES.  '99 

RViii:  XIII. 

Participles  refer  to  nouns. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"  The  wind  is  risirig^." 
558.  Rising  is  a  present  active  participle,  from  the  ir 
regular  verb  to  rise — "  Pres.  rise  ;  Imp.  rose  ;  Perf.  part,  risen' 
— and  it  refers  to  loind,  according  to  Rule  XIII. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX  CONTINUED. 
1. 

"  The  moon  is  setting."  "  Mary  was  playing." 

"  The  sun  is  rising."  "  I  have  been  writing." 

"  The  trees  are  growing."  "  1  found  him  crying." 

"  Jolin  was  dancing."  "  I  left  him  rejoicing." 

PARTICIPIAL  ADJECTIVES. 
"  The  rising  sun  cheers  us." 
^  559.  Rising  is  a  participial  adjective,  from  the  verb  to 
rise — "  Pres.  rise  ;  Imp.  rose  ;  Per/,  part,  risen" — and  belongs  to 
sun,  by  Rule  IV. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX  CONTINtTED. 
2. 

"  The  setting  sun  reminds  us  of    "  We    view    Avith    pleasure    the 

declining  years."  twinkling  stars." 

"  The  roaring  winds  alarm  us."        "  The  roaring  cataract  strikes  us 
"  The     rippling    stream    pleases  with  awe." 

us."  "  The   laboring  man  should  not 

"  The  singing-master  visited  me."  be  defrauded." 

3. 
"  Having    dined,   I    returned   to     "  Having  slept,  he  recovered  his 

school."  strength." 

"  Having    fought    bravely,    they     "  Having  retired  to  rest,  he  was 

were  at  last  (1.)  overcome."  seized  with  violent  pain." 

"  .John,  having  exercised  too  vio-     "  The  thief,  having  escaped,  was 

Icntly,  fainted."  never  afterwards  seen  in  that 

region." 
4. 
"  William  returned,  mortified  at     "  A  child  left  to  follow  his  own 

his  loss."  inclinations  is  most  common- 

"  The    stream,    swollen    by    the  ly  ruined." 

rains,  overflowed  its  banks."     "  Admired  and  applauded,  he  be- 
"  The    man    accustomed    to    his  came  vain." 

glass  seldom  reforms." 

Will  you  parse  the  next  lesson.'  What  kind  of  a  participle  is  "  Having 
Will  you  parse  risivrr,  in  the  sentence,  dined".''  501.  Why?  504. 
"  The  rising  sun"  .'  SriQ.  Why  is  it  call-  Wlio  dined,  in  the  phrase,  "Having 
ed  a  participial  adjective.'  .Bns.  Because  dined,  I  returned  to  school"  .' 
it  descrihes,  like  an  adjective,  and  ira-  To  what,  then,  does  Aai'/n^rfinerf  refer? 
p^ies  action,  like  a  participle.  Rule  XIII.  Will  you  now  parse  tho  re- 
Will  you  now  parse  the  next  lesson  ?  maining  lessons  ? 

{\.)  At  last  is  an  adverbial  phrase. 

8 


86  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

5. 

"  A   dissipated    son    grieves  his  youth   into   his   own    house, 

parents."  and  rendered  to  him  deserred 

"  We  must  not  neglect  any  known  assistance." 

duty."  "  William  befriended  the  deserted 

"  My   fether  took   the    forsaken  man." 

6. 

"  The  men,  being  fatigued  by  la-  feet,  was  severely  and  justly 

bor,  sought  rest  in  sleep."  punished." 

"  William,  being  dismissed  from  "  The  tree,  having  been  weighed 

college,  retired  to  the  coun-  down  for  a  long  time  by  abun- 

try."  dance  of  fruit,  at  last  (1.)  fel. 

"  Thomas,  after  having  been   re-  to  the  ground." 
peatedly  admonished  to  no  ef- 

KITXiX:    XIV. 

Active  participles,  from  active-transitive  verbs,  govern 
the  objective  case. 

"  James  is  beating  John." 

560.  John  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  third  person,  sinoular 
NUMBER,  MASCULINE  GENDER,  OBJECTIVE  CASE,  and  govemed  by 
beating,  by  Rule  XIV. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX  CONTINUED. 

1. 

"  John  is  striking  William."  immediately  set  off  for  Bo8- 

"  Susan  is  studying  her  lesson."  ton." 

"  Mary   has  been    repeating   her  "  I    spied    the    cat    watching   a 

lesson  to  her  mother."  mouse." 

"  The  teamster,  seeing  the  stage  "  Having  given  directions  to  hia 

upsetting,  ran  and  prevented  servants,  he    left   his  family 

it."  and  took  the  stage  for  Wash- 

"  Having  obtained  my  request,  1  ington." 

"  Jle  delights  infighting." 

561.  Fighting  is  a  participial  noun,  in  the  objective  case, 
and  governed  by  the  preposition  in,  according  to  Rule  X. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX  CONTINUED. 

1. 

"  Job    was   exhausted    by   wrest-  "  Job  practises  fencing  daily," 

ling."  "  The  instructer  teaches  reading, 

'■  Mary  acquired  a  liveliliood  by  writing,  and  spelling,  in  his 

sewing."  school." 

"  Walter  excels  in  writing.  "  Whispering     is     forbidden     in 

"  Fishing  delights  me."  school."  ' 

"  Beating    John."      Will    you    parse    ticipial  noun  .'    .■?«s.  Because  it  implies 
John  J  ,560.     Beating  7  .558.  action,  like  a  participle,  and  has,  also,  tha 

Will  you  parse  tlio  remaining  exercises    sense  of  a  noun, 
in  the  lesson  above  ?  Will  you  parse  the  rest  of  tbo  ezerciiei 

"  In  fighting."    Will  you   parse  fight-    in  this  lesson  ? 
ing  1  561.     Why  is ^^-/itiwo- called  a  par- 

(I.)  At  l<ut  k  aa  adverbial  phraw. 


EXERCISES. 


87 


2. 
562.     "  1^0?^  will  much  ohlige  me  hi/  fr.nning  those  books." 
Sendins;  is  a  participial  noun,  in  the  objective  case,  and 
governed  by  the  preposition  by,  accordinjr  to  Ilui,E  X. 

Books  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  third  person,  plural  num- 
ber, NEUTER  GENDER,  OBJECTIVE  CASE,  and  govemed  by  the 
active  participle  sending,  according  to  Rule  XIV. 

^-"— ^  EXERCISES  IN   SYNTAX   CONTINUED. 

"James  derives  pleasure  IVoin 
reading  useful  books." 

"  John  is  above  doing  a  mean 
action." 

"  Parents  are  pleased  at  seeing 
the  progress  of  their  chil- 
dren." 


"  Mary's  reading  has  been  useful 
in  improving  her  taste  in 
composition." 

"  1  am  discouraged  from  under 
taking  tliis  study." 

"  A  good  instmcter  takes  no  de 
light  in  punishing." 

The  present  participle,  when  used  as  a  noun,  (.ften  lias  the  definite  article 
the  before  it,  ana  the  preposition  of  after  it ;  as,  •'  By  the  observing  of  truth, 
you  will  connnand  respect."  With  equal  propriety,  however,  it  may  be  said, 
"  I5y  observing  truth,"  ifec,  omitting  lioth  the  article  and  the  preposition.  If 
we  use  the  article  without  the  preposition,  or  t!ie  preposition  without  the  arti- 
cle, the  e.tpression  will  appear  awkweird  :  hence, 

Note  VIII.  The  definite  article  the  should  be  used  be- 
fore, and  the  preposition  of  after,  participial  nouns,  or  they 
should  both  be  omitted. 

EXERCISES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 
"  By  the   observing  these    rules, 

he  will  avoid  Mistakes." 
"  He  prepared  them  for  the  event 

by  the  sending  to  them  proper 

information." 
"  In  writing  of  his  letter,  he  made 

some  mistakes." 


In  the  regarding  his  interests,  he 
neglected  the  public  affairs." 

He  was  sent  to  prepare  the  way 
by  preaching  of  repentance. " 

Keeping  of  one  day  in  seven  (1 .) 
is  required  of  Christians." 


PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 


"  William  calls  George." 

"  John's  father  will  reward  his 
industry." 

"  George's  father's  carriage  pass- 
ed the  tavern.' 

"  If  William  return,  he  will  be 
disappointed." 

"  John  has  beaten  his  little  brother 
most  shamefully." 


John  will  be  punished  for  his 
insolence." 

We  may  improve  under  our  in- 
stmcter, if  vi'e  choose." 

•  He  who  would  excel  in   learn- 

ing, must  be  attentive  to  his 
books." 

•  She  begins  to  improve.' 


"  By  sending  tliose  Ijooks."     A 
arse  sending  ?  562.  books  ?  .'i'^2. 


Will  ynu  Instead  of  savins,  "  By  tho  observing 

parse  senamsr  •  oo::.  vooics  :  0)2.  tliesc  rules,"   what  should  I  say.'  Wliy  .' 

Will  you  parse  the  roraainiiig  exercises  Note  VII  [. 

in  this  lesson .'  Will   you   now   parse  and  correct  tho 

From    what    a|e    present    participles  exercises  under  Note  VIII.  ? 

formed  .'  497.  Will  you  parse  the  promiscuous  exer- 

How  may  partisiples  in  ing  be  distin-  cises  in  Syntax  .•■  Next  take  those  to  be 

guished  from  other  parts  of  speech  of  the  written, 
game  termination  .'  500. 


(1.)  Seven  is  a  numeral  ailjective,  belonging  to  days,  understood,  by  Note 


88  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

563.  Will  you  compose  a  sentence,  containing  an  active-transitive 
verb?  One,  containing  a  neuter  verb.'  One,  containing  a  passive 
verb  ?  One,  expressing  the  same  sense  as  the  last  in  an  active  form.' 
Will  you  com])ose  a  sentence  having  a  verb  in  tlie  potential  mood .' 
One,  in  the  subjunctive  mood  ?  One,  in  the  imperative  mood  ?  One, 
in  the  infinitive  mood  ?  One,  having  an  adjective  in  the  superlative 
degree  ?  One,  having  tlie  article  an  correctly  used  before  a  vowel  ? 
One,  having  an  adjective  in  the  positive  degree  that  has  in  itself  a 
superlative  signification  ?  One,  containing  the  relative  whose?  One, 
containing  wklch?  One,  with  xoliat  used  as  a  compound  pronoun.'' 
One,  having  loho  used  as  an  interrogative  pronoun.'  One,  having  a 
verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  common  form  .' 

Will  you  construct  one  or  more  sentences,  which  will  make  sense, 
with  the  word  truth  contained  in  them  ?  One,  vi^ith  the  word  icisdom, 
contained  in  it  ?  One,  with  the  word  knowledge  ?  One,  with  the 
word  learning  ?     One,  with  the  word  science  ? 

Will  you  coiib-truct  a  sentence  about  •prudence  f  One  about  his- 
toric ?  One  or  more  on  the  following  subjects,  namely,  geography, 
gardening,  farms,  orchards  f 

Will  you  fill  up  the  following  phrases  with  suitable  words  to  make 

sense,  namely,  "  Industry health" .'    "  By  —  we  acquire " .? 

'■  i"  youth characters " .'    <'  Arithmetic business"? 

"  Washing-ton live hearts  of  his "  ? 


XLIX.     OF  THE  AUXILIARY  VERBS. 

564.  The  xerhs  Jutve,  be,  will  Slid  do,  when  they  are  unconnected  with  a 
principal  verb,  expressed  or  understood,  are  not  au.xiliaries,  but  principal 
verbs  ;  as,  "  We  have  enough  ;"  "  1  am  graieful ;"  "  He  wills  it  to  be  so  ;" 
"  They  do  as  they  please."  In  this  view,  they  aiso  have  their  auxiliaries  ;  as, 
'  I  shall  hat-e  eiioug-li ;"  "  I  will  be  grateful,"  «&c. 

31)5.  Tlie  jjcculiar  force  of  the  several  auxiliaries  will  appear  from  the 
following  account  of  them. 

obG.  Do  and  did  mark  the  action  itself,  or  the  time  of  it,  with  greater  en- 
ergy ami  positiveness  ;  as,  "  I  do  speak  truth  ;"  "  I  did  respect  him  ;"  "  Here 
aui  I,  lur  tliou  (/jVi-/ call  me."  They  are  of  great  use  in  negative  (1.)  sen- 
tences ;  as,  "  I  do  not  fear  ;"  "  I  did  not  write."  They  are  ahnost  universally 
eiiiployed  m  askuig  questions  ;  as,  "  Does  he  learn  ?"  "  Did  he  not  write  V 
Tlicy  sometimes  also  supply  (2.)  the  place  of  another  verb,  and  make  the  rep- 
etition of  It,  in  the  same  or  a  subsequent  sentence,  unnecessary ;  as,  "  You 
attend  not  to  yoi-r  studies  as  he  does;"  (i.  e.  '■'  as  he  attends,"  &c.)  "  I  shall 
conic,  if  I  can  ;  but  if  I  do  not,  please  to  excuse  ine  ;"  (i.  e.  "  if  I  come  not.") 

367.  Maij  and  ndgtU  express  the  possibility  or  liberty  of  doing  a  thing  ; 
r,in  ami  could,  the  power  ;  as,  '•  It  mn>'  rain  ;"  "  I  may  write  or  read";" 
"  lie  might  have  improved  more  than  he  has  ;"  "  He  can  write  much  better 
than  he  could  last  3car." 


XLIX.  Winch  are  the  auxiliary  verbs.'  What,  effect  have  (?a  and  did  in  sen- 

",-,       .                 .  tencfs.?  5G6.     Give  an  exam|ilo.  .'jeti. 

VVIi:it  IS  an  an.xiliary  verh.'  511.  Will  you  pivn  an  example  in  which  the 

What  a  pnneipal  one  .'*  repotitioii  of  the  principal   verb   is  un- 

VVlien  are  hune,  he,  loill,  and  do  princi-  necessary:'  566. 

pal   verbs.'    564.     Give   an   e,vaniT)lc   of  What  do  jnay  and  miWi£  express .'  567 

each.  564.  *          ' 


(1.)  Denying.  (2.)  To  fill  up.  *  See  question  to  197. 


AUXILIARY   VERBS.  89 

508.  3Tiist  IS  sometimes  called  in  for  a  helper,  and  dmiotes  necessity  ;  as, 
"  We  must  speak  the  truth,  whenever  we  do  speak,  and  we  must  not  prevari- 
cate." (1.) 

51)9.  yVill,  in  the  first  person  sine^uhir  luid  plural,  intimates  (2.)  resolution 
and  promising;  in  the  second  ;uid  third  person,  it  only  foretells  ;  as,  "  I  will 
reward  the  good,  and  will  punish  the  wicked  ;"  "  We  will  remember  benefits, 
aixl  be  grateful ;"  •'  Thou  wilt,  or  he  will,  repent  of  that  folly  3"  ''  You,  or  they, 
will  have  a  ploasant  walk." 

570.  Slia/L  on  the  contrary,  in  the  first  person,  simply  foretells ;  in  the 
second  and  third  persons,  it  promises,  commands,  or  threatens  ;  as,  "  1  shall 
go  abroad  ;"  '"  NVe  shall  dine  at  home  ;"  '"  Thou  shall,  or  you  shall,  inherit  the 
land  ;"  "  Ye  shall  tlo  justice,  and  love  merc^' ;"  "  They  shall  account  1  tr  their 
misconduct."  The  following  passage  is  not  translated  (3.)  according  to  the 
distinct  and  proper  meanings  of  the  words  shall  and  u  ill :  "  Surely  goodness 
and  mercy  shall  follow  inc  all  the  days  of  my  life  ;  and  1  will  dwell  in  the  house 
of  the  Lord  for  ever."  It  ought  to  be,  "  irill  follow  me,"  and  '"  I  sludl 
vhvell." — The  foreigner  who,  as  it  is  said,  fell  into  the  Thames,  and  cried  out, 
''  1  mill  he  drowned  !  nobodj'  shall  help  me  I"  made  a  sad  misapplication  of 
these  au.\iliaries. 

.57L  These  observations  respecting  the  import  (4.)  of  the  verbs  %nll  and 
?/)'(//,  must  be  understood  of  e.^plioalivc  sentences;  for  when  Uie  sentence  is 
in!crrogati\e,  just  the  reverse,  (5.)  for  the  most  part,  takes  place  :  thus,  "  I 
shall  go,"  "You  will  go,"  express  event  (G.)  only;  but,"  117//  3'ou  go?" 
iitiporls  inlentlon  ;  and  "'  f>hall  I  go  ?'".'  refers  to  llie  will  of  another.  iJut 
"  Ha  shall  go."  and  "  Shall  he  go  ?"  both  impi}'  svill ;  expressing  or  referring 
to  a  command. 

572.  When  ilic  verb  is  put  in  the  suhjuHctive  mood,  the  meaning  of  these 
auxiliaries  likewise  undi'jrgoes  (7.)  some  alteration  ;  as  the  learners  will  readilj' 
perceive  by  a  few  examples  :  "  He  shall  proceed  ;"  "  If  he  shall  proceed  ;" 
"You  sluiil  consent  ;"  "  If  j-ou  shall  consent."  These  auxiliaries  are  some- 
times interchanged  (8.)  in  the  indicative  and  subjunctive  moods  ;  to  convey  tlie 
same  meaning  of  the  auxiliary;  as,  "  He  2rill  not  return;'"  "  If  he  shall  not 
return  ;"  "  Me  shall  not  return  ;"  "  If  hein'll  not  return." 

573.  Would  primarily  (9.)  denotes  inclination  of  will  ;  and  should,  obliga 
tion  ;  but  they  both  vary  their  import,  and  are  often  used  to  express  simple 
event. 

574.  Do  and  have  are  sometimes  used  as  principal  verbs,  iiccor(hng  to  the 
following 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

Prcs.    I  do.  T  have. 

Imp.      1  did.  I  had. 

Per/.    I  have  done,  I  have  had. 

Plup.    I  had  done.  I  had  had. 

1  Fill.  I  shall  or  will  do.  I  shall  or  will  have. 

2  Fnt.  I  shall  have  done.  I  shall  have  had. 

What  is  the  use  of  must?  .568.  all  the  days  of  ray  life  ;  and  I  will  (hvell 

What  does  will  intimate   in  the    fir^;t  in  the  house  of  the  Lord  for  ever."    570. 

person  siiisfular.'  plural.'   SGO.     Give  an  Tii  what  consists   the  mistaku   in  the 

exainjite.  .0S9.     In  the   second  and  third  expression     vviiich    the    foreijrncr    made 

persons?  5G9.     Give  an  example.  ^iCid.  wln^n  he  fell  into  the  Thames.'  570. 

What  does  shall  intimate  in  tlie  first  What  do  shall  and  will  denote  in  inter- 
person.'  .W).     Give  an  example.  570.  roirative    sentences;  as,   "Shall   I   go.'" 

tn  what  particHilar  is  llio  translation  of  "  Will  you  go.'"  571. 

the  foMowinf;  passage  incorrect.'  "Sure-  What  do   would  and  should   primarily 

ly  jroodness  and  mercy  sha!!    follow  me  denote?  573. 


(I  \  rn. him  Ihe  truth.  (2.1  Shows.  (3.)  Eiprewed.  (4.)  Meaning.  f!S.)  Contrary 

(6.J  Whil  ha|>|ifns.  (7.)  Suiters.  (S.)  To  exchange  one  for  the  other.  (9.)  In  the  first  plac» 

8* 


90  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

575.  POTENTIAL  MOOD. 
Pres.  I  may  or  can  ao.  I  may  or  can  have. 

Imp.    I  might,  could,  would,  ur  should  I  might,  could,  would  or  should  have. 

do. 

Per/.  I  may  or  can  have  done.  I  may  or  can  have  had. 

Plup.  I  might,  could,  would  or  should  I  might,  could,  would  or  should  have 

have  done.  had. 

576.  SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 
Pres.  1.  If  I  do.  If  I  have,  &c. 

576—1.  IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Pres.  Do  you,  or  Do  you  do.  Have  you,  or  Do  you  have. 

577.  INFINITIVE  MOOD. 
Pres.  To  do.  To  have. 
Per/.  To  have  done.                                To  have  had. 

578.  PARTICIPLES. 
Pres.   Doing.  Having. 
Per/.   Done.                                              Had. 
Comp.  per/.  Having  done.                      Having  had. 


L.     OF  DEFECTIVE  VERBS. 

579.  Defective  verbs  are  those  which  are  used  only  in 
some  of  the  moods  and  tenses. 

580.  Tlie  following  are  the  principal  ones  ; 

Pres.  Tense.  Imp.  I\nse.  Pt-^'f-  Participle. 

May,  Might,  (Wanting.) 

Can,  Could. 

Will,  Would, 

Shall,  Should, 

Must,  Must,  , 

Ought,  Ought, 

Quoth, 

531.  Of  these,  ought  and  must,  you  perceive,  are  not  varied. 
SSS.  Ought  and  quoth  are  always  used  as  principal  verbs.  Ought  is  the 
same  in  the  imperfect  tense  as  in  the  ])reseut,  and  is  always  followed  b}'  an  in- 
finitive ;  as,  "  He  ought  to  stud}-  y'  "  He  ought  to  have  read."  In  this  last 
exam]jle,  ought  is  in  the  imperfect  ;  and  in  the  first,  it  is  in  the  present.  This 
we  determine  by  the  infinitive,  which  folk)\vs  the  verb,  thus  :  when  the  present 
infinitive  follows  ought,  ought  is  in  the  present  tense  ;  but  when  the  perfect  in 
finitive  follows  it,  it  is  in  the  imperfect  tense. 

583.  In  English,  verbs  arc  often  used  both  in  a  transitive  and  intransitive, 
or  neuter  signification.  Thus,  to  flatten,  when  it  signifies  to  make  even  or  level, 
is  an  active-transitive  verb ;  but  when  it  signifies  to  grow  dull  or  insipid,  it  is 
an  intransitive  verb. 

Will   you   repeat   the   synopsis   of  da  Whicli  are  not  vaiieJ .'  581. 

lliroiiKli  all  liie  moods  .'    nf  liave?  How  are  ouglit  and  qucili  always  used? 

Will  you  conjugate  do  in  the  present  589. 

tense.''  /tape  in  the  perfect  tense  ?  How  can  you  tel!  when  ought  is  in  the 

What  is  the  perfect  participle  of  rfu  ?  present  tense.''  582. 

oHiavel  the  compound  perfect  of  Ju  ?  of  Wlien  is  it  in  the  iraperfcot  tense  .'  582. 

have?  Give  an  example  of  each  tense.  532. 

L.     What  are  defective  verbs.'  579.  When  is  to  flatten  transitive,  and  when 

Will  you  mention  the  principal  ones,  intransitive.''  583. 

with  their  imperfect  tenses .'  580.  How,  then,  aro  verhs  oflen  used .'  583. 


DEFECTIVE  VERBS.  91 

584.  A  neuter  or  inlraiisilive  verb,  by  tlie  addition  of  a  preposition,  may 
bconio  a  conipoiiiid  active-traiisilive  verb  5  as,  to  smile  is  intransitive  ;  it  caji- 
not,  therefore,  be  followed  by  an  objective  case,  nor  be  changed  into  the  pas- 
sive form.  We  cannot  say,  "  She  smiled  liim,"  or  "  He  was  smiled  ;"  but 
we  say,  very  properly,  "  She  smiled  on  him  ;"  "  He  was  smiled  011  by  her." 

683.  Prepositions  affect  the  meaning  of  verbs  in  different  ways.  To  cast 
means  to  throw  ;  as,  "  He  cast  a  stone  at  her."  To  cast  up,  however,  means 
lo  compute  ;  as,  "  He  casts  up  his  accoimts."  In  all  instances  in  which  the 
preposition  follows  the  verb,  and  modifies  its  meaning-,  it  should  be  considered 
apart  of  the  verb,  iuid  be  so  treated  in  parsing. 

386.  There  are  some  verbs,  which,  although  they  admit  an  objective  case 
after  them,  still  do  not  indicate  the  least  degree  of  actioi  ;  as,  "  I  resemble 
niy  father."  This  seeming  inconsistency  may  be  easily  reconciled  by  reflect- 
ing that,  in  all  such  cases,  the  verb  has  a  direct  reference  to  its  object.  Of 
tins  nature  arc  the  verbs  retain,  resemble,  own,  hai^e,  &c. 

387.  Some  neuter  or  intreuisitive  verbs  admit  of  a  passive  fonn,  and  are 
thence  called  neuter  passive  verbs  ;  as,  "John  goes  home  to-niyht."  Here 
g-oe*  is  cui  intransitive  verb.  But  in  the  sentence,  "John  is  gone  home,"  is 
^one  is  a  neuter  passive  verb.  Again,  in  the  phrase,  "  William  comes,"  comes 
\s  an  intransitive  verb  3  and  Ln  the  phrase,  "  William  is  come/'  is  come  is  a 
neuter  passive  verb. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 
1. 

"  William  had  had  many  advan-     "  He  has  had  many  precious  op- 

tages     before     he    improved  portunities." 

them  in  a  proper  manner."  "  John  will  do  as  his  instructer 
"  A    good    scholar    will    not    do  directs." 

what  (1.)  is  forbidden  by  his    "  He  may  have  had  time." 

instructer." 

2. 
"  1  own  this  book."  "  I  cannot  believe  him." 

"  Charles  resembles  his  parents."     "  His  father  does  not  hesitate  to 
"  He  retains  his  place."  trust  him.' 

3. 
"  The  farmer  casts  seed  into   the     "  SJie  smiles  sweetly." 

ground."  "  She  smiled  on  John." 

"  The  merchant  casts  up  liis  ac-     "  John  wd!s  smiled  on  by  fortune 

counts  often."  in  every  undertaking." 

■1. 
'•  Tlie  instructer  has  come."  '•'  Mary  was  gone  before  her  nioth- 

•'  Our  instructor  his  come."  er  came." 

'•  William  has  gone  to  visit  his     "  When  they  came  to  town,  they 

jiarents."  made  many  purchases." 

"  Susan  has  gone.' 

ilow  can  an  intisinsitive  verb  bccpmo  Is  resemb!e,  strictly  speaking,  a  transi- 

triiiisitive.'  584.     Give  an  example.  5SJ.  tive  verb  .=  586. 

VVIiat  does  to  cast  moan  .'  585.  Why  iloes  it  admit  an  object  after  it ' 

Meaning  of  io  cir,-t  tip?  58.>.  586. 

When  may  tlu-  prc|i(>.?it!on  bo  rcckuiiort  There  are  several  verbs  of  this  class  • 

a  part  of  llio  yerli .'  535.  will  yon  name  some  of  them  .'  586. 

_    How  should  It  be  considered  :n  pars-  Wliat  is  a  neuter  passive  verb.'    587. 

nig.   585,  Give  an  e.xample.  587. 

Will  you  now  parse  the  next  lessons .' 


(J.)  (riafslanls  fjr'Mliat  "Iikh,"  or  "  the  lhin£  which.''    Apply  Rules  V.  VI.  and  VIII. 


oa 


ENGLISH   ORAAIMAR. 


LI.     OF   ADVERBS. 

588.  Adverbs  are  words  joined  to  verbs,  participles, 
adjectives,  and  other  adverbs,  to  qualify  them. 

689.  Expressions  like  ihc  following,  namely,  a  few  days  ago,  long  shice, 
none  at  all,  at.  length,  hi  vain,  by  no  means,  a  great  ileal,  &.C.,  are  denominated 
adverbial  phrases,  when  the}'  are  used  to  qunlify  verbs  or  participles,  bj'  ex- 
pressing' the  manner,  lime  or  degree  of  action. 

390.  The  definite  article  tlie  is  frequently  placed  before  adverbs  of  the 
comparative  and  superlative  desrces,  to  "ive  the  expression  more  force  ;  as, 
"  'J'he  more  he  walks,  the  better  \\<i  feels."  When  the  article  is  use<l  in  this 
sense,  both  the  article  and  adrerb  may  be  reckoned  an  adverbial  phrase,  and 
oe  so  considered  in  parsing. 

691.  You  have  doulHless  noticed  that  most  words  ending  in  /(/  are  adverbs. 
The  reason  of  this  is  that  ly  is  a  contraction  of  the  adverb  like.  :  thus,  from 
manlike  we  form  manly  :  geiUleiitaidy  is  a  contraction  of  genllemanlikc. — 
Hence, 

392.  If  yon  meet  with  a  word  ending  in  /y,  implying  in  its  signification  the 
idea  of  like,  yon  may  conclude  at  once  that  it  is  an  adverb. 

IIXJI.E  IX. 

Adocrhs  qualify  verbs,  participles,  adjectives,  and  other 
adverbs. 
EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 
"  In  vain  we  look  for  perfect  happiness." 
593.  In  vain  is  an  adverbial  phrase,  and  qualifies  look,  ac- 
cording to  Rule  IX. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX  CONTINIJKU. 

"  John  has  come  again,  but  Wil-     "  William  acted  very  nobly." 

liain  has  not."  "  I  will  by  no  means  consent." 

"  Very  many  persons  fail  of  hap-     "  He   wrote   a  lonjj   letter  a  few 


piness. 

"  A  vast  many  evils  aje  incident 
to  man  in  his  wearisome  jour- 
ney through  life." 

'  Tlie  instructress  has  at  length 
arrived." 


days  ago."(l.) 
John  was  writing  carelessly." 
I  have  admonished  her  once  and 

again." 
A  few  days  ago,  there  was  much 

excitement  in  town." 


\A.  What  is  the  ineaniiig  of  adverb'! 
228. 

To  what  is  the  adverb  joinsd  ?  588. 

For  what  purpose  ?  ^>SS. 

How  many  difTerent  parts  of  speech 
does  it  qualify  ?  588. 

Which  are  they.'  588. 

VVhat  is  tlie  delinition  of  an  adverb .' 
588. 

Are  adverbs  compared?* 

Will  you  compare  wistlyl  2,35.  soon'! 
234. 

How  are  they  compared.'  236. 

Will  yon  compare  the  adverbs  miicli  ? 
vein  bad!  ill!   237. 

Some  adverbs  are  not  regular  in  their 
comparison  ;  will  you  name  one.'  237. 

Will  you  name  four  or  five  adverbial 
phrases.'  589. 


When  are  they  to  be  considered  ad- 
verbial phrases?  589. 

Is  tiie  article  the  ever  joined  to  an  ad- 
verb ?  590.     For  what  purpose  ?  590. 

What  do  the  article  and  adverb  form 
in  such  cases  r  590. 

How  is  it  to  be  considered  in  parsing  ? 
590. 

How  came  most  words  ending  in  ly  to 
be  considered  adverbs  ?  591.  Give  an 
example.  691. 

How  can  we  determine  between  words 
ending  in  ly,  whether  or  not  they  are  ad- 
verbs ?  ."^92. 

What  rule  do  you  apply  when  yea 
parse  an  adverb  ?  IX. 

"  In  vain  we  look  '  V/ill  you  parss 
in  vain  ?  593. 


(I.)  J  few  day^  ago—in  adverbial  phrase. 


*  See  question  to  334. 


PKEFOSITIONS.  93 

Note  IX.  To  qualify  verbs,  participles,  adjectives,  and 
other  adverbs,  u^e  should  use  adverbs  ;  but  to  (jualify  nouns, 
we  should  use  adjectives. 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 
"  William  writes  good  "*  "  On  conditions    auitably    to    his 

"  Susan  studies  diligent  "  rank." 

"  He  speaks  fluently  and  reasons     "  He  speaks  correct." 

correct."  "  Mary  sings  admirable." 

"  John  writes  tolerable  well,  but     "  He  writes  elegant." 

readst  miserable."  "  He  reads  and  spells  very  bad." 

"  Harriet  dresses  neat." 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 
594.  Will  you  write   down  a  sentence,   containing  a  compound 
active-transitive  verb  .'     One,  having  a  neuter-passive  verb  .' 

Will  you  compose  two  or  more  sentences  about  a  lion  ?  Two  or 
more,  about  sheep  ?  Two  or  more,  about  a  coio  ?  One,  about  an  ox  f 
One,  about  a  </o^  .^  One,  about  «  ca.f.^  One ,  zHaovX  Africans  ?  One, 
about  Indians  ?  One,  about  fishes  ?  One,  about  steam-boat  disasters? 
One,  about  stage  accidents  ? 


LII.    OF  PREPOSITIONS. 

595.  Prepositions  are  used  to  connect  vv^ords,  and  to  show 
the  relation  between  them. 

696.  We  not  unfrequentlj'  meet  with  verbs  compounded  of  a  preposition 
and  verb ;  as,  "  to  uphold,"  "  to  invest,"  "  to  overlook  ;"  aiid  this  composition 
sometimes  gives  a  new  sense  to  the  verb  ;  as,  "  to  undersiand,"  ''  to  with- 
draw."  But  the  preposition  more  freanently  occurs  q/ler  the  verb,  and  sepa- 
rate from  it  5  as,  •'  to  cast  up,"  "  to  fall  on."  The  sense  of  die  verb,  in  this 
case,  is  also  materially  affected  by  the  preposition. 

598.  The  prepositions  after,  before,  above,  beneath,  and  several  others,  some- 
times appear  to  be  adverbs,  and  may  be  so  considered  ;  as,  "  They  had  their 
reward  soon  after  ;"  "  He  died  not  long  before  ;"  "  He  dwells  above  :"  but 
if  the  noun  time  or  place  be  added,  they  lose  their  adverbial  form  ;  as,  "  He 
died  not  long  before"  [that  time],  &c. 

599.  There  is  a  peculiar  propriety  in  distinguishing  tne  correct  use  of  the  dif- 
ferent prepositions.  For  illustration,  we  will  take  the  following  sentences  :  "  He 
walks  with  a  staff  by  moonlight  ;"  "  He  was  taken  by  stratagem,  and  killed 
with  a  sword."     Put  the  one  preposition  for  the  other,  and  say,  ''  He  walks  by 

Will  you  next  parse  the  remaining  ex-  compounded  ?   596.     Give   an   example 

ercises  ?  596. 

When  should  we  use  adverbs  ?   Note  Where   is   the   preposition   more   fre- 

JX.  quently  placed  .■"  596.     Give  an  example. 

When  adjectives  .'  Note  IX.  596. 

"William  writes  good."     Wherein  is  Will  you  name  four  prepositions  which 

this  sentence  incorrect  i*  in  many  instances  appear  to  be  adverbs  ? 

Will  you  now  parse  and  correct  the  re-  598. 

maining  exercises  .'  How  may  they  be  converted  into  prep- 

Lir.     What  is  the  meaning  ofyreposi-  ositions  ai;ain  .'  598. 

tion  ?     244.  "  Ho  walks  by  a  staff  with  moonlight." 

What  are  prepositions  .'  595.  Will  you  correct  this  sentence,  and  theu 

Will  you  repeat  the  list  ?  247.  repeat  the  phrase  .' 

With  what  are  verbs  not  unfroquently 

*  For  the  adjective  good,  we  should  use  the  adverb  loei/,  accordinff  to  No*e  IX. 

t  Reads  agrees  with  John  understood,  and  is,  therefore,  conaected  witli  lurites  by  the  conjunctioa  h\U,  agree- 
it)ly  to  Rule  XI. 


94  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

a  staff  with  moonli"ht  5"  "  He  was  taken  trilh  stratagem,  and  kill«d  by  a 
sword  ;''  and  it  will  appear  ihat  they  diflcr  in  sig-nification  more^  than  one 
at  first  view,  would  be  apt  to  imagine. 

RXTIiZ:   X. 

Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 
"  John  lives  within  his  income." 

600.  JFilkin  is  a  prepositio.v. 

Income  is  a  commo.-v  noun,  of  the  third  person,  SI^'euI.AR 

NUMBER,  NEUTER    GENDER,     OBJECTIVE     CASE,    and    gOVemod    by 

within,  according  to  Rule  X. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX   CONTINUED. 

"  Thomas   made  his   fortune   by  He  made  the  sun  to  shine  by 

industry."  day,  and  the  moon(l.)  to  give 

"  Susan  labors   with    her  needle  light  by  night." 

for  a  livelihood."  "  Beneath  the  oak  lie  acorns  in 

"  Respecting  that  affair,  there  was  great  abundance." 

a  controversy."  "  John,  who  is  at  all  times  watch 

"  In  si.x  days  God  made  the  world,  ful  of  his  own  interest,  will 

and  all  things  that  are  in  it.  attend  to  that  concern." 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

601.  Will  you  fill  up  the  following  sentences  with  suitable  prepo- 
sitions to  make  sense  ?    "  John  was  —  the  house  when  he  was  seized 

■ a  fit."  "  Tlie  busy  bee  —  summer  provides  food  —  the  approach 

ing  winter  —  the  prudence  —  a  rational  being." 

Will  you  supply  the  objects  to  the  following  '  "  James  was  catch- 
ing   ."    "  He  was  beating ."    "  He  supports ." 

Will  you  supply  agents  or  nominative  cases  to  the  following .' 
" was  running."    " was  dancing." 

Will  you   supply  verbs  in  the  following  .'    "  A  dutiful  child 

his  parents."    "  Grammar us correctly." 

Will  you  compose  two  or  more  sentences  about  boys?  One,  about 
whales  ?  One,  about  snakes?  One,  about /ozm  ?  One,  about  parents* 
One,  about  brothers  ?  One,  about  sisters  ?  One ,  about  uncles  ?  One, 
about  aunts  ? 


LIII.    OF  CONJUNCTIONS. 

602.  A  CONJUNCTION  is  a  word  that  is  chiefly  ui-ed  to  con- 
nect sentences,  so  as,  out  of  two  or  more  sentences,  to  make 
but  one. 

Will  you  repeat  the  rule  respcctin"  the        What  is  a  simple  sentence  .'  2.W.    Giv« 

govcrnraent  of  nouns  by  prepositions  .'  X.  an    example.      A   compouiiil    sentence? 

"  John  lives  within  his  income."    Will  2.16.     Give  an  example, 
you  parse  within  ?  600.     income  1  COO.  Why  called  compound  .'  2,54. 

Will  you  now  take  the  romainin?  ex-         Lllf.     Meanin";  of  cojyunciicn  7  257. 
ercisos  to  be  parsed  ;  after   which,  those         What  is  a  conjunction  .'  6f(2. 
to  bo  written  ?  Meaning  of  copulative  1  264. 

(I.)  Thf  sense  is,  '■  He  made  ibe  moon."    Moon.  theu.  is  iu  the  objective  case,  governed  kjr  madt  usda 

itood,  and  cooneclcJ  with  sun,  l<j-  Rule  XI. 


INTERJECTIONS.  95 

003.  Relative  pronouns,  as  well  as  conjunctions,  serve  to  connect  sen- 
tences ;  as,  "  Hlcssed  is  the  inun  who  fcarelh  tiic  Lord." 

604.  Conjunctions  very  olion  unite  sentences  when  they  appear  to  unite 
only  words  ;  as  in  liic  Ibllowiu'^  sentences  :  "  Duty  and  interest  tbrbiJ  vicious 
induljjenccs.".  "  Wisdom  or  lolly  fjoverns  us."  Lach  of  these  forms  of  ex- 
pression contains  two  sentences,  namely,  the  first,  "  Duty  forbids  vicious  in- 
dulgences ;"  "  Interest  forbids  vicious  indulgences  :"  the  second,  "  Wisdom 
governs  us  ;"  "  Folly  governs  us." 

RUIiS    XI. 

Conjunctions  connect  verbs  of  the  same  mood  and  tenser 

and  nouns  or  pronouns  of  the  same  case. 

EXERCISES   IN   SYNTAX. 

605.  "  William  writes  and  ciphers." 
And  is  a  copulativS  conjunction. 

Ciphers  is  a  regular  active  intransitive  verb,  from  the 
verb  to  cipher — "  Pres.  cipher  ;  Imperf.  ciphered  ;  Per.  part. 
ciphered.  1.  I  cipher;  2.  You  cipher;  3.  He  or  Williavi 
ciphers" — made  in  the  indicative  mood,  present  tense, 
third  person  singular,  and  agrees  with  William  understood, 
and  is  connected  to  writes  by  the  conjunction  and,  agreeably  to 
Rule  XI. 

EXERCISES  liV  SYNTAX  CONTINUED. 
"  John  ciphers  rapidly,  and  reads     "  Though  he  is  lively,  yet  he  is 

correctly."  not  too  volatile." 

•  If  we  contend  about  trifles,  and     "  If  he   has  promised,  he  should 
violently  maintain  our  opin-  act  accordingly." 

ions,  we  shall   gain   but  few     "  He    denied    that   he   circulated 
friends."  the  report." 

SENTENCES   TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

606.  Will  you  compose  a  sentence  containing  the  conjunction  iff 
One,  containing  and?  As  many  sentences  as  there  are  conjunctions 
which  follow  ;  eacli  sentence  containing  one  .''  Mthough.  Unless. 
For.     B'xaujte.     Therefore.     Or.     Keither.     Nor. 

Will  you  compose  a  sentence  about  Jac/:*ort .?  One,  about  CZ<iy? 
One,  about  Monroe?     One,  about  Madison? 


LIV.     OF  INTERJECTIONS. 

607.  Interjections  are  words  thrown  in  between  the 
parts  of  sentences,  to  express  the  passions  or  sudden  feelings 
of  the  speaker. 

Whut  is  tlie  use  olthii  copuliitive  con-  Do    rniijiinctions    ever    connect    sen- 
junction  .'  SJO.").  tences  when  they  ajipear  to  connect  words 

Will  you  repeat  the  list  of  copulativo  only  .'  604.     Give  an  example.  604. 

•onjunc'tioas  .'  26(3.  "  William  writes  and  ciphers."     Will 

What  does  dixjimetive  aignifv  ?  271  you  parse  avd  ?  605.     ciphers  ?  605. 

What  docj  the  disjunctive  conjnnetion  Will  you,  in  the   next  place,  take  the 

Connect  ?  274.  exercises   to  be   parsed  and  written,  and 

Will  you  repeat  the  list  of  them  ?  275.  dispose  of  them  .' 

What  ii  the  rule  for  connecting  words  I.IV.     What  is  the  meaning  of  inter- 

bj  conjunctioni  ?  XI.  jectionl  283. 

What  oth«r  words,   bsiidas  conjunc-  What  are  interjeotioni  i  607. 
tiana  and  prepoiitions,  connect !  603. 


9G  ENOLrSH  GRAMMAR. 

603.  We  do  not  say,  "  Ah,  I  !"  "  Oli,  I  !"  but  "Ah,  me  !"  "Ob,  me  \" 
using  the  objective  case  after  the  interjection.  The  pronoun  here  spoken  of, 
you  perceive,  is  of  the  first  person  :  hence, 

Note  X.  Pronouns  of  the  first  person  are  put  in  the 
objective  case,  after  the  interjections  Oh  !   O  !  ah  !  &-c. 

G09.  We  say,  "  O  thou  persecutor  !"  "  Oh  ye  hypocrites  !"  "  O  thou  who 
dwellest,"  &.c.  :  hence. 

Note  XI.     The  interjections  O  !  oh  !   and   ah  !  require 
the  nominative  case  of  pronouns  in  th6  second  person. 
EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

610.  "  Ah  me  !   I  must  perish." 
Ah  is  an  mTEiuECTioN. 

Me  is  a  personal  pronouk,  of  the  first  person,  singular, 
OBJECTIVE  Case,  and  governed  by  ah,  agreeably  to  Note  X. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX  CONTINUED. 

"  O,  thou  (1.)  who  hast  murdered  deaf  (3.)  to  the  calls  of  duty 

thy  friend  !"  and  honor." 

"  O,  thou  who  Itearost  prayer  !"  "  Oh  !  happy  (4.)  us,  surrounded 

"  Ah  me  !  must  I  endure  all  this.?"  with  so  many  blessings. 
"  Ah  !  unhappy  (2.)  tliou,  who  art 

SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

611.  Will  you  compose  a  sentence  containing  alas?  One,  con- 
taining; oA  y  One,  about  volcanoes?  One,  about  lakes?  One,  about 
islands?  One,  about  Webster  the  statesman.?  One,  about  a  gfood 
scholar?     One,  about  a  poor  scholar?     One,  about  a  good  instructer? 


LV.     OF  THE  AGREEMENT  OF  NOUNS. 

612.  Apposition,  in  grammar,  signifies  the  putting  of  two  nouns  in  the 
Sfime  case. 

613.  When  I  say,  "John  tlie  mechanic  lias  come."  I  am  speaking  of  only 
one  person  ;  the  two  nouns,  John  and  meclmnic,  botn  meaning  or  referring  to 
the  same  person  3  consequently  they  are  put,  by  apposition,  in  the  same  case  i 
lience 

ruijz:  XV. 

Jflien  two  or  more  nouns,  in  the  same  sentence,  signify 
the  same  thing,  they  are  put,  by  apposition,  in  the 
same  case. 

Will  you  ri'pcat  from  the  list  six  inter-  Will   you  now  lake  the  remaining  ex- 

jections  .'  285.  erciscs  to  be  parsed  and  written  ? 

How  may  an  interjection  generally  1)6  LV.     Meaning  of  o/i/)o.»itic>n  ?  612. 

known  .'  28().  "John   the    mechanic."       How    many 

"  Ah  me  I"     In  what  case  is  me  ?  filO.  persons  arc  here  spoken  of.' 61.3.    Should, 

r    What  rule  or  note  applies  to  me  1  X.  then,  the  two  nouns,  John  and  mechanic, 

"  O  thou,"  (SiC.      What  note   ajii)lie3  be  in  the  same,  or  a  different  case  .''  613 

to  thou  1  XI.  What  is  the  rulo  for  this  agreement  ? 

"  Ah  me  !"    Will  you  parse  ahl  me?  XV. 
610. 

(1.)  ForMou, apply  Note  XI.  C2  »  A»ret»  witll  (Ann,  by  4»I«IT. 

10.)  Belong*  lo  M),  iij  Rtie  VT.  (4. )  .tppir  Rale  IT. 


EXERCISES.  W 

%  EXEIICISKS  IN  SYNTAX. 

g]^  "Webster  the  statesman  has  hift  us." 

§tatesrnan  is  a  common  koux,  masculuxk  ge.-vdeu,  third 
PEi^^x,  sin<;i;l,vr  -iUmuek,  nominative  cask,  tuid  put  in  appo- 
sition with  IVth^ter,  by  Rdle  XV. 

EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX  CONTINUF.U. 

1. 

"  John  the  Bapliitwas  belicaded."  "  Cicero,  tlie  orator,  flourished  in 

"David,    the    thief,    waa    appre-  the  time  of  Catihne,  the  con- 

hended."  spirator." 

"  Joiinsen,    the    bookseller,    has  "  I   visit  Thompson,   tlic   i)rofc8- 

Jkiled  in  business."  sor,  oflen." 

"  I  consulted  Williams,  the  law-  "  John,  tlie   miller,  died   yester- 

yer."  day." 

"  If  John  will  not  go,  I  will  go  "  We  will  inspect  the  goods  our- 

myseif."  (] .)  selves." 

^'  You  yourself  are  in  fault."  "  I,  I  am  the  man  who  committed 
"  They     themselves    were     nils-  the  deed." 

taken." 

Rcmork  1 . — Fv.t  llie  fame  reason  i!i;il  o;io  noun  agrees  wiih  aiiollicr  in  ca^e, 
it  agrees  with  ii  in  n'.nii!  cr  a:i:l  person  al'o. 

"  I,  Alexander,  by   the  grace  of    "  We,  the  representatives  of  tlie 
•        God,  emperor  of  all  the  Rus-     "       people  of  these   colonics,  do 
eians,  promulirate  this  law."  make  tliis  declaration." 

Remark  2. — Wlien  one  noun  describes  or  qualifies  aiiotlier,  the  one  so 
qUEvlifyiiig"  hoconies  an  atljecUve  in  sense,  and  may  he  so  considered  m  pars- 
iiig.  x4ccording!y,  !/Ve;jiCTt<,  in  the  piirase  '•' Treiuonl  House,"  is  an  adjec- 
tive belonging  to  House,  by  Rule  JV. 

fil.5.                           EXERCISES  IN   SYNTAX. 

"  The  Marlborough  Hotel  is  situ-  "  John  Dobson  was  in  tovra^yes- 

ated  in  Wasliinglon-strcet."  terday." 

"  The   firm   of  Messrs.  Williams  "  John  Johnson,  the  blacksmith, 

&  Sons,  has  failed."  has  broken  his  leg." 

Remark  3. — When  tlie  nouns  which  refer  to  the  same  person  or  thing  are 
separated  by  verlis,  as,  "  Webster  is  a  statesman,"  it  is  customary  to  apply 
one  or  more  of  the  follov.'ing  rales  : 

\.  Any  verb  may  Juiv.e  the  same  case  after  it  as  b^ore  ii,  when  both  words 
refer  to  the  same  tiling. 

2.  The  verb  to  bk,  through  all  its  variations,  has  the  same  case  after  it  as 
that  which  next  precedes  it. 

"  Webster  the  statesman."     Will  you  "  Tromont  House."      Wlint    part  of 

parse  statesman  ?  614.  speech   is   Trcmont  1    Romaik  9.      How 

Will  you  now  parse  the  succeeding  ex-  used  here.'  Remark  2.     Will  you  parso 

ercises  :  it  in  full  .' 

"  I  will  go  myself."     Will   you   parse  Will  you  now  parse  all  the  exercises 

myself"!  under  Remark  2  ? 

How  is  the  compound  personal  pronoun  What  is  the  rule  or  rules  usually  giv- 

formad  in  the  singular?  383.     How  in  tho  en   for  parsing  sJafcsmn;!,  in  the  phrase, 

plural .'  386.  "  Wehster  is  a  stutesmau".'    Remark  3, 

When  one  noun  is  put   in   apposition  1,  2,  3,  4. 

with  another,  in  what  particulars  docs  it  In  tho  same  «entence,  do  Webster  and 

agree  with  it?  Remark  1.  slatesinaH  lioth  mean  or  refer  to  tho  same 

Will  you   now  parse   the   next  c.\cr-  person  .'     In  v.h.it  case,  then,  ought  they 

cisea  ?  to  be  .'  613.    15y  w:iat  rule  .'  XV. 

CL)  Afyie^is  a  compouad  personal  prcDOUD,  first  person,  singular,  EPminative  case,  and  put  is  appoiiticn 


98  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

3.  Passive  verbs  of  naming ,  jtidgivg ,  SfC.  have  the  same  case  after  them  as 
Before  tliem. 

4.  Neuter  verbs  Iiave  the  same  case  after  them  as  before  tliem. 

616.  The  foregoing  rules,  in  the  opinion  of  the  writer,  are  wholly  unneces- 
sary, tending  merely  to  confuse  the  mind  of  the  learner  by  requiring  him  to 
make  a  distinction  in  form,  when  there  exists  none  in  principle.  In  corrobora- 
tion of  this  fact,  Mr.  Murray  has  the  following-  remark  : — 

617.  "  By  these  examples  it  appears,  that  the  verb  to  be  has  no  government 
of  case,  but  serves  in  all  its  forms  as  a  conductor  to  the  cases  ;  so  that  the  two 
cases,  which,  in  the  construction  of  the  sentence,  are  the  next  before  suid  after 
il,  must  always  be  alike.  Perhaps  this  subject  will  be  more  intelligible  by  ob- 
serving that  the  words,  in  the  cases  preceding  and  following  tne  verb  to  be, 
may  be  said  to  be  in  apposition  to  each  other.  Thus,  in  tlic  sentence,  '  I  un- 
derstood it  to  be  him,'  the  wortls  it  and  him  are  in  apposition ;  that  is,  they  re- 
fer to  the  same  thing,  and  are  in  the  same  case." 

618.  EXERCISES   IN   SYNTAX. 

1. 

"  Webster  is  a  statesman."  "  Julius  Caesar  was  that  Roman 

"  John  is  a  good  scholar."  general    who   conquered   the 

"  William   will  become  a  distin-  Gauls." 

guished and  valuable  citizen."     "  Tom  struts  a  soldier.    (1.) 
"  She  walks  a  queen."  (1.)  "  Will  sneaks  a  scrivener." 

"  He  is  styled  Lord  (1.)  Mayor  (1.)     "Claudius  Nero,  Caligula's  un 

of  London."  cle,  a  senseless  fellow, obtain- 

"  He  was  named  John."  (1.)  cd  the  kingdom." 

"  She  moves  a  queen."  (1.) 

2. 
"  Susan  took  her  to  be  Mary."  (1 .)  who  is  the  son  of  Mr.  (2.)  John 

"  I  took  him  to  be  John  (2.)  Og-  Quincy  (2.)  Adams."  (1.) 

den.'  "  She  is  not  now  the  person  whom 

"  We  at  first  took  it  to  be  her,  but  they   represented   her  (I.)   to 

afterwards    were    convinced  have  been." 

that  (3.)  it  was  not  she."  "  Whom  (5.)  do  you  fancy  them 

"He  is  not  the   person  who  (4.)  to  be.'" 

it  seemed  he  wasi"  "  The    professor    was    appointed 

"I  understood  it  to  be  him  (1.)  tutor  to  the  prince." 

Remark  3. — It  not  unfrequently  hafipens  that  the  connecting  verb  is  omit- 
ted 5  as,  "  They  made  him  captain  ;"  that  is,  lo  be  captain. 

3. 
"  They  named  him  John."  "  Tliey  proclaimed  him  king." 

"  The    soldiers    made    him    gen-     "  His  countrymen   crowned   him 

eral.'  emperor." 

C19.     SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AM)  CORRECTED. 
"  It  might  have  been  hiin,(f!.)  but     "  She  is  the  person  who  I  under- 

tliere  is  no  proof  (7.)  of  it."  stood  it  to  have  been." 

"  Though  I  was  blamed,  it  could     "  Who  do  you  think  me  to  be  ?" 

not  have  been  me.'  "  Whom  do  men  say  that  I  am.'" 

"  I  saw  one  who  1  took  to  be  she."     "  \\'h<nn  lliinJi  ye  that  I  am  .•'" 

What  orfioo  does  llie  verb  to  be  [jeribrrn  he  parsed  in  the  pliriise,  "  I  uiulcrslood  it 

between  cases?  CI7.  to  bo  him"  .'  617. 

Are  the  cases  next  before  and  after  it,  Will  you  now  parse  lessons  1,2  and  3.' 

alike,  or  different  .''  617.  Is  the  verb  to  be  always   expressed  ? 

What    is    the    opinion   of  Mr.   Murray  Reniark.3.     Give  an  example.  Remark  3. 

respecting  tlio  cases  before    and  after  to  Will  yon  now  lake  the  sentences  to  be 

J«?  617.  parsed    and  corrected;    also  tliose  to  be 

How  does  he  think  it   and    htm  should  written  .' 

0-)  Apply  Rule  XV.  (2.)  Ri-n.aik  2.  (3.)  Conjunclion  (4.)  IVhe  is  put  in  apposition  with  he, 
by  Kale  XV.  (S.)  IVhoni  agrees  wiih  (Ami,  by  Rale  XV  (6.)  tlim  »bould  be  he,  lo  agree  with  it, 
•Mordiog  to  Rule  XV.        (7.)  Apply  Rule  VI 


NOUNS.  99 

620.  SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

Will  you  compose  a  sentence  having  nouns  in  apposition  ?  One, 
having  nouns  in  apposition,  but  separated  by  a  verb  ?  One,  having 
a  noun  used  as  an  adjective  ? 

Will  you  construct  a  sentence  luwing  in  it  the  word  who?  One, 
having  whose?  One,  having  ichom  ?  One,  having  what?  One, 
having  that?  One,  having  7h«/i?  One,  having  ?coma«?  One,  having 
boy?     One,  haying  arir Is?     One,  having  parents? 


LVI.     OF  NOUNS  USED  INDEPENDENTLY. 

621.  To  address  siffnifics  to  spealc  to  ;  as,  "  James,  your  father  has  come." 
I'he  name  of  the  person  addressed  must  always  be  of  the  sccoiul  person  ;  and 
a  noun  in  this  situation,  when  it  lias  no  verlj  to  asjree  with  it,  and  is  wholly  dis 
connected  will)  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  is  said  to  be  independent.     Hence, 

RUIiE    XVI. 

JVhen  an  address  is  made,  the  name  of  the  person  or 
thing  addressed  is  in  the  nominative  case  independent. 

EXERCISES   IN  SYNTAX. 

622.  "  John,  will  you  assist  me  ?" 

John  is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  .second  person,  singular 

NUMBER,  MASCULINE    GENDER,  and   NOMINATIVE  CASE  INDEPEND- 
ENT, according  to  Rule  XVI. 

EXERCISES    IN    SYNTAX    CONTINUED. 
1. 

"  My  lords,  (1.)  the  time  has  come     "  Rufus,  you  must  improve  your 

when  we  must  take  some  de-  time." 

cisive  measures."  "  Gentlemen  of  the  jury.' 

"  In  making  this  appeal  to  you,     "James,   (I.)      study    (2.)      your 

my  fellow-citizens,  I  rely  en-  book." 

tjrely  on  your  candor."  "  William,  do  try  to  get  your  lea 

son  to-day." 
2. 
"  Boys,  attend  to  your  lessons."        "  My  dear  children,  let  no  root  of 
"  Girls,  come  into  school."  bitterness  spring    up    among 

"  Did  you  speak  to  me,  girls  ?"  yju." 

LVI.    "James,  yonr  father  h.is  come."  When  is  a  noun  independent .'  621. 

Which  word  here  is  the  name  of  tlie  per-  What  is  tlie  rule  for  a  noun   put  indo- 

Bon  addressed  .'  pcn.lently?  XVI. 

What  is  the  meaning  of  to   address?  In  the  sentence,   "John,  will  you  as- 

521.  sist  me  .'"  will  you  parse  John  1  622. 

Of  what  person  "ks  a  noun  when  an  ad-  ^Vill  you  next  parse  the  rest  of  the  ex- 

droBS  is  made  ?  621.  ^rcises  in  this  rule  .' 


(1.)  Rule  XVI.  (2.)  Impen-Sve  mood,  and  ajiees  with  thauor  yuu  understood,  by  Rule  VIL 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


LVII.     OF  NOUNS  IN  THE  CASE  ABSOLUTE. 

G23.  In  die  phrase,  "  Tlie  sun  being  lisnn,  we  set  sail,"  the  first  clause  of 
llie  sentence,  namely,  "  The  sun  being-  risen,"  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  re- 
mainder :  the  noun  and  parlici])le  may,  iherelorc,  when  taken  together,  be  said 
to  be  in  the  nominative  case  inde])ondent ;  but  as  we  have  already  one  case  of 
this  nature,  we  will,  for  the  sake  of  making  a  distinction,  call  this  (the  noun 
joined  with  a  participle)  the  nominative  case  absolute.     Hence, 

rxtijiz:  xvsi. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  before  a  participle,  and  independent 
of  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  is  in  the  nominative  case 
absolute. 

IN   SYNTAX. 

"  Wellington  having  returned  to 
England,  tranquillity  was  re- 
stored to  France." 

"  Bonaparte  being  conquered,  the 
king  was  restored." 

"  The  conditions  being  observed, 
the  bargain  was  a  mutual 
benefit." 


G2k  EXERCISES 

'  The  sun  (1 .)  being  risen,  (2.)  we 
departed." 

"  Kgypt  being  conquered,  Alex- 
ander returned  to  Syria." 

"  Shame  being  last,  all  virtue  was 
lost." 

"  The  soldiers  retreating,  victory 
was  lost." 

C25.     SENTENCES  TO  13E  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 

"  Him  (3.)    only    excepted,   who     "  Him   being   destroyed,  the   re- 
was  a  murderer."  maininc 

"  Her  being  dismissed,  the  rest  of  escape, 

the  scholars  behaved  well." 


robbers  made  their 


LVIII.     OF  THE  INFINITIVE  MOOD. 


Note  XII. — A  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood  is  sometimes 
placed  indoj^endently ;  a?,  "  To  be  frank,  I  own  I  have  in- 
jured you." 

G26.  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"  To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  in  "  To  tell  the  plain  truth,  I  per 
fault."  suaded  him  to  stay." 

"  To  display  his  power,  lie  op-  "  To  convince  you,  I  will  con 
pressed  liis  soldiers."  tinuo  here  till  you  return." 


IjVtI.  "  The  sun  beins  risen,  we  set 
Bail."  i!o-,v  many  v.oras  in  tliig  bcii- 
tciice,  ust'il  iiidcpondently,  pre  taken  to- 
gnlhcr.'  623. 

VVIiy  is  this  case  donominateil  thocase 
absolute  .'  G23. 

What  is  the  rule  for  the  case  absolute? 
XVII. 

Will  you  now  take  the  parsing  exer- 
cises under  Rule  XVIl.,  and  then  the 
sentences  to  be  corrected.' 


LVLII.  "  To  confess  the  truth,  I 
was,"  &c.  How  is  to  confess  used  ? — 
Note  XI r. 

What  is  the  rule  for  it .'  Note  XII. 

AVhat  is  the  infinitive  mood  used  for  .' 
479. 

How  maoy  tenses  lias  it  .'  528. 

Wliat  it  Ks  usual  sign  .•■  517. 

Will  yon  now  parse  the  oxercisas  un- 
der Note  XII.  > 


(I.)  In  the  nominative  case  absolute  with  tsijigrisen,  by  Rale  XVII.  (2.)  Rul»  XIII. 

(3.)  When  a  noun  is  in  the  case  absolute,  it  should  be  in  the  nominative  caje.    Him  should  lierelbre  bt  ht, 
If  Rule  XVII. 


MOOD.  101 

"  To  play  is  pleasant."  What  is  pleasant  7  "To  play."  The  infiniiiva 
to  play  is,  then,  the  nominative  case  to  is.  "  Thou  shalt  not  kill,  is  required  of 
all  men."  What  is  retjuired  ?  "  Th(Hi  shalt  not  kill."  The  verb  is  re'/uiied, 
then,  agrees  with  "  Thou  shall  not  kill,"  as  its  nominative.     Hence, 

62G-1.  NoTii  XIII. — The  infinitive  mood,  or  part  of  a 
sentence,  is  frequently  put  as  tiie  nominative  case  to  a  verb 
of  the  third  person  singular. 

627.  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

*  To  excel  requires  much  exer-  "  Thou  shalt  not  kill,  is  the  com- 
tion."  mand  of  God." 

"  To  abandon  friends  will  sink  a  "  Honor  thy  father  and  thy  moth- 
man's  character."  or,  is  required  of  all  men." 

"  To  practise  religion  is  our  du-  "  To  write  a  fair  hand  requires 
ty."  practice." 

Remark  \ .-^To  excel  is  the  nominative  case  to  requires  hy  Note  XIII. ; 
and  requires  agrees  with  to  excel  hy  Rule  VII.  In  parsing  "  Thou  shalt  not 
kill,"  we  first  apply  Rules  VI.,  VII.  and  IX.  The  whole  phrase  is  considered 
the  nominative  to  is  required,  by  Note  XIII. 

2.  The  infinitive  mood,  or  a  part  of  a  sentence,  is  frequently  the  object  of  a 
transitive  verb  ;  as,  "  Uo3's  love  to  play."  W^hat  do  boys  love  ?  "  To  play." 
The  ohject  oi'  lore,  then,  is  to  play.  "  Children  do  not  consider  how  much  has 
been  done  for  them  hy  their  parents."  Consider  what  ?  '•  How  mitch  has  been 
done  for  them  bij  their  pureyUs  ;"  including  for  the  object  of  the  verb  the  whole 
phrase  in  italics. 

Note  XIV. — The  infinitive  mood  or  part  of  a  sentence, 
may  have  an  adjective  or  participle  agreeing  with  it,  when 
there  is  no  noun,  either  expressed  or  understood,  to  which 
the  adjective  may  belong. 

628.  EXERCISES  IN   SYNTAX. 

"  To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant."  "  Defraud    not   thy   neighbor,   is 
"  To  practise  virtue  will   be   pro-  binding  on  all." 

ductive  of  happiness."  "  To   do  good  to  our  enemies,  is 
"  To  be  ridiculed  is   unpleasant."  not  natural  to  our  hearts." 

Remarks. — Pleasant  agrees  with  "  to  see  the  sun,"  by  Note  XIV.  Bind- 
ing agrees  \v\\\\  "  Defraud  not  Ihy  neighbor,"  by  the  same  aulliority.  Toil 
aj)ply  Rule  VII. ;  to  sun,  Rule  VIII. ;  to  the  infinkive  to  see,  Note  XIII. 

629.  SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

Will  you  compose  one  or  more  sentences  having  an  infinitive  gov- 
erned by  a  participle  ?  One,  using  an  infinitive  after  a  noun  .'  One, 
describing  the  manner  of  plai/ina-  hall  ?  One,  or  more,  on  the  man- 
ner of  ■playing  tag  ?  One,  on  the  duty  of  children  to  mind  their  pa- 
rents ?  One,  or  more,  on  industry  ?  One,  on  the  business  j'ou  intend 
to  pursue  for  life  .' 

"  To  play  is  pleasant."    Wliat  is  pleiis-  Pincn  we  have  a  rule    for   to  Zoce,  as  a 

ant.'     What,  then,  is  the  nominative  to  vorh,  there  is  no  necessity  for  considering 

i.v  ?  (i2fi-l.     Rule  .'  Note  XIII.  it  the  object  in  parsinfr  :   what  rule,  then, 

"Thou  shalt  not  kill,  is  required  of  all  will  you  apjily  to  it  .'  XII. 

men."     What  is  required .'  ^Vill    you   natne   an  example  in  vi'hich 

What  is  the  nominative  to  is  required'^  there  is  part  of  a  sentence    used  as  ths 

626-1.     Rule.'  Note  XI H.  object  of  a  verb  .'  fi27.  Remark  2. 

Will  you  now  parse  the  remaining  ex-  "  To  see  the  sun   is   plea.sant."      Will 

ercises  under  this  rule  .'  you  parse  pleasant  ?  to  see  1  the  1  sun 7  is? 

"  liovs  love  to  play."    What  is  the  ob-  Will  you  now  parse  the    remaining  ex- 

jeet  of  love  7  4527.     Remark  2.  ercises  under  Note  XIV. 

9* 


1^  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


LIX. 

6.10.  Ill  the  phrase,  "  John  and  James  are  here,"  the  sense  is  thai  "  John 
and  James  are  both  here  ;"  two  persons  are  therefore  spoken  of,  which  ren- 
ders it  necessary  to  use  the  plurd  verb  are,  to  agree  with  two  nouns  which  in- 
dividually are  singular  :  lience, 

Htr£>lS    XVIIt. 

Tivo  or  more  nouns  or  pronouns,  of  the  singular  num- 
(jcr,  connected  together  by  and,  either  expressed  or 
understood,  'must  have  verhs,  imuns,  and  pronouns, 
agreeing  iviih  them  in  the  plural  number. 

G31.  EXERCISES   IN  SYNTAX. 

"  William  and  James  run."  "  Jolin  and  Joseph  can  get  tlicir 

"  Mary    and    Harriet  study,  and  lessons." 

they  v/ill  therefore  e.xcel."  "  Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man." 

"  You  and  I  are  in  fault."  "  My  coat  and   pantaloons  were 

"  Jolin   and  Thomas  say  they  in-  made  by  Watson." 

tend  to  study  Latin." 

Rtmarks. —  William  is  one  of  tlie  nominatives  to  the  verb  ran.  James  is  in 
Uic  nominative  case  to  the  verb  rmi.  niul  is  connected  with  the  noun  William, 
by  Rule  XI.     Run  agrees  with  William  and  Jujiies  by  Rule  XVIII. 

C32.    SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 
'  Mary  and  her  cousin  has  come."     "The  farmer  and  his  son  is  in 
*  You  and  I  makes   progress  in  town." 

our  studies."  "  Susan  and  her  sister  is  deceit- 

"  Life   and  health  is  both  uneer-  ful." 

tain."  "  William  and  John  both  writes  a 

good  hand." 
liemailLS. — For  has  come,  we  sliould  read  luwe  come,  that  the  verb  may  be 
plural,  when  it  has  two  nominatives   connected   by  and,  according  to   Rule 
XVTII. 

Exception  \. — When  and  connects  two  or  mere  nouns  in  the  singxilar,  which 
refer  to  the  same  person  or  tiling,  the  verb  must  be  singular  5  as,  "  Pliny  the 
philosopher  and  naturalist  has  greatly  enriched  science." 

G33.    SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 
•That    superficial    scholar    and     "  In  that  house  live  a  great  and 


critic   have   given   new   evi-  distinguished     scholar      and 

dence  of  his  misguided  judg-  statesman." 

ment."  "  Mr.  Cooper,  the  sailor  and  nov- 
•' There  go  a  benevolent  man  and  clist,    visit    La    Fayette,    the 

scholar."  patriot  and  philanthropist." 


LIX.      VVhon  I  say,"John  and  Jfimos  Will  you  parso  the   succeeding  eser- 

are  here,"  of  how  many  persons  do  I  cises.' 

epeak  ?  "  Fliiiy  the  philosopher  ami  naturalist 

Should  we,  tlion,  use  tj  or  are  1  fiM.  has   greatly   enriched    science."      Why 

What  is  Uis  rule  for  are  1  XVIH.  should  we  use  has,  in  this  sententOj  in- 

Will  you  now  parse  the  exercises  un-  stead  of  have  ?  Exception!. 

Act  Rula  XVIII. .'  "  That  superficial   scholar   and   critic 

"William  and  James  run."     Will  you  have  given."     Why  is  /iai-«  ^ireji  incor- 

parse    Jfllliam    in    full.'    aiidl    James  7  rect.'  Exception  1. 

run  ?  What  13  the  rule  for  has  eomel  E*c«p- 

Will  you  parse  the  next  exercises  .'  tion  1. 

"  5fa?y  and  her  cousin  has  come."—  Will  you  correct  and  fareo  the  remain- 

Why  13  this  incorrect .'  632.  ing  esercises  ? 


EXERCISES.  103 

Exception  2. — When  two  or  more  nouns  m  the  singular,  coiuiected  by  and, 
have  eacli  or  every  joined  wlih  tlieni,  ihe  verb  must  be  in  the  singular  number ; 
as,  "  Every  person,  every  house,  ami  every  blade  of  grass,  was  destroyed." 

634.  SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 

"  Every  man,  and  every  woman,     "  Each   man,  and  each    woman, 
and  every  child,  were  taken."  were   particularly  alluded  to 

"  Every  tree,  stick  and  twig-,  were  in  the  report  of  the  affair." 

consumed." 
Remark. —  Were,  in  the  first  of  these  examples,  should  be  changed  ht  was, 
because  reference  is  had  to  each  person,  individually  considered,  which,  in  re- 
spect to  llie  verb,  is  the  same  in  effect  as  if  one  person  only  was  spoken  of. 

Note  'KN .—Every  is  sometimes  associated  with  a  plural 
noun,  in  which  case  the  verb  must  be  singular ;  as,  "  Every 
hundred  years  constitutes  a  century." 

635.  SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 

"  Every  twenty-four  hours  afford     "  Every  four  years  add  another 
to  us  tire  vicissitudes  of  day  day   to  the   ordinary  number 

and  night."  of  days  in  a  year." 

Remark. — Afford,  m  die  example  above,  is  a  violation  of  the  note  ;  it  should 
be  affords,  in  the  singular  number.  The  reason  of  this  is,  that  "every  twenty- 
four  hours,"  signifies  a  single  perwd  of  time,  and  is,  therefore,  in  reality  sin- 
gular. 

NoTK.  XVI.— A  verb  in  the  plural  will  agree  with  a  col- 
lective noun  in  the  singular,  when  a  part  only  of  the  indi- 
viduals are  meant  ;  as,  "  The  council  were  divided  in  their 
sentiments."  When  the  noun  expresses  the  idea  of  unity, 
the  verb  should  be  singular ;  as,  "  The  council  was  com- 
posed wholly  of  farmers." 

Remarks. — In  the  foregoing  example,  we  use  die  plural  verb  yere  divided, 
because  we  refer  to  the  iu\lividuals  composing  the  council  ;  but  if  no  allusion 
of  diis  sort  had  been  made,  and  we  had  spoken  of  it  as  one  entire  body,  we 
should  have  used  the  singular  verb,  according  to  the  common  rule  ;  as,  "  The 
council  is  composed  wholly  of  farmers." 

We  apply  to  council,  in  the  first  example,  Notf.  XVI.  ;  to  Kere  divided,  the 
same  note  ;  and  to  conncit,  and  was  composed,  in  the  second  example.  Rules 
VI.  and  VII. 

6.36.  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"  The   council   were    divided   in     "  My  people  do  not  consider." 

their  sentiments."  "  The   multitude  eagerly   pursue 

"Apart  of  the  men   were  mur-  pleasure  as  their  chief  good." 

dered."  

In  the  first  example,  under   Exception  "  'J'lio  council   were  divided."     Why 

2,   why  use  was  destroyed,  rather  than  not.ra.??  Note  XVI.     Remarks.     Rule? 

were  de.itroiied  ?  E-irepliun  •}.  Note  XVI. 

Will  you'parse  the  remaining  cxeruisea  When  is  a  noun  called  coUestive  ?  306. 

under  this  exception,  after  having  cor-  In  whst    circumstances   would  it  be 

reeled  them  .'  proper  to  use  the   singular  verb  ?    Note 

"  Every   tv.enty-fcur  hours   afford   to  XVI.     Give  an  example.           ^ 

us."      What   does   "every   twenty-four  How  do  you  parso  cuunc/Z?  Note  XVI. 

hours"   signify,   one  period  of  time,   or  Remarks.       H'cre  divided?    Note   XVI. 

more  .'    Wliat  is   wrong,  then  ?    Vi'liy  ?  Remarks.      Was  composed,  in  the  second 

635.     Remark.  cxaniplo  .'  Note  XVI. 

What  is  the  rule  for  this.'  Note  XV.  Will  you  now  parse   and  correct  tho 

Will  you  correct  and  parse  the  other  remaining  exercises  under  this  note  .' 
oxanijile  ' 


104  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

637.    SENTENCES  TO  BK  I'ARSEI)  AND  CORRECTED. 
"  My  people  doth   not  consider."     "  The  committee  was  divided   in 
"  The    people    rejoices    in     that  tlieir  sentiments,  and  has  re- 

which  should  give  it  sorrow."  terred   the   business  to  a  gen- 

"  The  multitude  rushes  to  certain  eral  meeting." 

destruction." 


LX. 

633.  Negative  means  denying  ;  and  affirmative,  assei'ting  or  declaring  posi 
lively.^  A  sentence  in  which  something  is  denied  is  a  negative  one,  and  a  sen- 
tence in  which  something  is  affirmed  or  positively  asserted,  is  an  ailirmalive 
one.  "  Vice  degrades  us,"  is  an  affirmative  sentence,  and  "  Labor  does  noc 
injure  us,"  is  a  negative  one.  Not,  nothing,  nomie  at  all,  by  ho  mearis,  no,  in  no 
wisf,  neither,  no,  none,  S^'C,  are  nega'ive  terms. 

The  phrase,  "  I  have  nothing,"  naj  one  negative,  and  means,  "  I  have  not 
any  thing."  The  phrase,  ''I  liave  not  nothii-g,"  cannot  mean  the  same 
as  "  I  have  nothing,"  but  must  mean,  on  the  contrary,  "  I  liave  something." 
This  last,  you  perceive,  is  an  affirmative  sentence,  and  sioiiifies  the  same  as  the 
foregoing  one,  "  I  have  not  nothing."  Two  negatives,  tnerelbre,  are  equal  to 
an  affirmative.     Hence, 

Two  negatives  in  the  same  sente7ice,  are  equivalent  to 
an  affirmative. 

639.    SENTENCES  TO  BE  PARSED  AND  CORRECTED. 

"  He   spends   all  the  day  in  idle-  "  Be  (1.)  honest,  nor  (2.)  take  (3.) 

ness,  and  I  cannot  prevail  on  no    shape    nor    semblance  ol 

him  to  do  nothing."  disguise." 

"  He  cannot  get  no  employment  "  He  is  so  (4.)   indolent,  that  he 

in  town."  will  not  do  nothing." 

"  I  cannot  by  no  means  consent."  "  1  did  not  say  nothing." 

"  I  shall  not  take   no   interest  in  "  He  cannot  do  nothing  accepta 

the  affair."  ble  to  John." 

"  1  never  studied  no  grammar." 

Renuirks. — For  nothing,  in  the  above  examples,  read  a7iytliing,  in  accord- 
aiice  wiiii  Rule  XIX. 

LX.     What  is  the  meaning  of  nen-otire  ?        What  is  "  I  have  not  nothing"  equal 

638.     nffirinatire  ?  638.  to  in  expression  ?  C38. 

What    is    a    negative    sentence  .'    ()38.         What,  then,  can  we  say  of  two  noga- 

An   affirmative   one  .'  638.      Give  an  ex-  tives  ?  Rule  XIX. 
ample  of  each.  Will  you  next  take  the  exercises  under 

Will  you  name  a  few  negative  terms  .'  Rule  XIX.  .' 
638.  What    is   a   nonn  !   4.     article  ?  350. 

How   many    negatives  has  the  phrase  adjective  .'  3R3.     pronoun  ?  381.     vorh  ? 

"  I    have    nothing,"     and    what   does    it  438.      participle  .'    4'J8.      advorh .'     588 

mean  ?  638.  preposition  .'     595.      conjunction  .'     602. 

Meaning   of   "  I   have   not   nothing"  .'  interjection  .''  607.     common   noun  .'  301. 

638.  proper  noun  i"  309.     definite  article  ?  80. 

How  many  negatives  has  it  .'  indefinite  article.'  83. 

What  kinil  of  a  sentence   is    "I  liave         How  many  I'ropcrties  in  grammar  have 

something"  .'  038-  nouns  :  .^08.     How  mnny  have   verhs  ?* 

(I.)  He  im-ces  wilh  thmior  ymi  iind^rslooj,  li)  Rule  VH. 
(2  )  Fr.r  tt07\  read  ajid, 

(3.)  TaJu  is  in  (he  iinpprative  n-.otxl,  wid  agrees  with  llwit  nr  ymi  iinjerslood  and  is  therefore  connected 
tn  if,  according  to  Rule  XI. 
(4.)  Advrrb. 
•  Moml,  tense,  ntiniber,  and  prrviu. 


EXERCISES. 


105 


610.  PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

<  Deep  rivers  move  witli   silent    "  Power  discovers  the  disposition 
majesty 


but    small    brooks 
words  are  but 


are  noisy. 

"  Deeds  are  liulls 
leaves." 

'It  is  a  bad  horse  indeed  that 
will  not  carry  his  own  prov- 
ender." 

"  The  hog  never  looks  up  to  him 
who  threshes  down  the  a- 
corns." 

'  Add  not  trouble  to  the  grief- 
worn  heart." 

"  If  the  counsel  be  good,  it  is  no 
matter  who  gives  it." 

"  By  others'  faults  wise  men  cor- 
rect their  own." 

"  When  the  world  says  yoij  are 
wise  and  good,  ask  yourself 
if  it  be  true." 

"  Sin   and    misery    are    constant 


of  man." 

"  Quarrels  are  easily  begun,  but 
with  difficulty  ended." 

"  Eorce  without  forecast  is  of  lit- 
tle worLli." 

"  Home  v.'as  not  built  in  one 
day." 

"  In  youth  and  strength  think  of 
old  age  and  weakness." 

"  All  are  not  saints  who  go  to 
church." 

"  To  say  well  is  good,  but  to  do 
well  is  better." 

"  No  fear  should  deter  us  from 
doing  good." 

"  Pride,  perceiving  Humility  hon- 
orable, often  borrows  her 
cloak." 

"  Sav  what  is  well,  but  do  what 
13  better." 


companions. 

611.  SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

Will  you  compose  one  sentence  describing  the  business  of  an  in- 
shuctcr  ?  One,  the  business  of  a  doctor  ?  One,  the  business  of  a  law- 
yer ?  One,  of  a  dentist  ?  One,  o'l -n  surgeon?  One,  al  ^  farmer  ?  One, 
of  a  blacksmith  ?  One,  of  a  miller  ?  One,  of  a  mcrchaut  ?  One,  of  a 
grocer?  One,  of  an  npothccary?  One,  oi:  a  legislator  ?  One,  of  a  judge? 
One,  of  a  colonel  ?  One,  of  a  captain  ?  One,  of  a  general  ?  One,  of  an 
agent  in  a  factory  f  One,  of  the  directors  of  a  hank  ? 


LXI. 


G 12.  When  I  say,  "  He  taught  me  grammar,"  I  mean,  "  He  laugiit  gram- 
mar lo  me  :"  s:ranmuir,  then,  is  the  object  of  the  verb,  and  me  is  governed  by 
the  prepositioii  to,  understood.  lii  the  first  example,  we  have  two  objective 
cases  after  the  verb  taught ;  and  since  there  are  many  instances  like  the  pre 
cedin;^,  in  which  transitive  verbs  are  followed  by  two  objective  cases — hence 
the  following 


How  many  participles  I'.ro  tliere  ?* 
What  are  they  ?  500,  502,  5^4. 

When  is  a  verb  active  ?  430. 

When  transitive  .'  440.  When  intran- 
sitive ?  441.  ilow  may  it  be  known  i 
154. 

Will  you  decline  /  ?  thou  ?  he  ?  she  ? 
it  7  127. 

Of  what  person  is  /?  my  1  us  ?  their  ? 
you  1  127. 

What  is  mood  ?  451.  the  indicative  ? 
452.  polonti.-il.'  453.  subjunctive.'  456. 
infinitive  .'  479.  imperative  .'  47-2.  IIo\v 
many  tenses  has  the  indicative  ?  525. 
subjunctive  .'  52G.  potential  .'  527..  in- 
finitive ?  528.     imperative  .'  529.     What 


are  the  signs  of  the  present  tense  .'  519. 
imperfect  ?  520.  perfect  ?  521.  pluper- 
fect ?.  592.  first  future  ?  523.  second 
future  .'  524. 

Will  you  now  parse  tlio  promiscuous 
exercises.' 

Will  you  next  take  the  sentences  to  be 
written  .' 

LXI.  "  He  taught  m»  stannnar." 
What  does  this  mean.'  642.  W'hat,  then, 
is  the  object  of  the  verb,  and  by  what  ia 
grammar  ^ov<fTned?  042.  By  what  is  me 
governed .'  642. 

How  many  objective  cases,  then,  fol- 
low the  verb  taughf!  6-42. 


106 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


RUXiS    XX. 

Tivo  objective  cases,  the  one  of  a  person,  and  the  oth<ir 
of  a  thing,  may  follow  transitive  verbs,  of  aslcing, 
teaching,  giving,  SfC. ;  a  preposition  being  under- 
stood. 

"  He  taught  mc  grammar." 
Remark  1. — In  the  foregoing  example,  vie  and  grammar  are  both  governed 

b^  taught,  according  to  Rule  XX. 

643.  EXAMPLES  TN  SYNTAX. 

"  My  instriicter  gave  me  a  valua- 
ble book,  for  my  attention  to 
study." 

"  She  forbade  him  the  presence  of 
the  emperor." 

"  The  French  denied  him  the 
privilege  of  an  American  citi 


*  He  taught  me  grammar." 

*  WiUiam  asked    me  some   ques- 

tions." 
"  My  mother  wrote  me  a  precious 

letter  in  the  month  of  May." 
"  They   allowed    him   his  seat  in 

Congress." 
'  John  gave  me  a  detailed  account 

of  the  whole  transaction." 


LXII. 


644.  The  natural  construction  of  the  passive  voice  requires  the  object  of  the 
active  verb  to  become  the  nominative  to  the  passive  verb  ;  as,  "  He_  taught  me 
grammar  ;"  "  Grammar  was  taught  me."  In  some  few  instances,  just  the  re- 
verse takes  place  ;  as,  "  1  was  taught  grammar  ;"  here  the  object,  grammar, 
is  placed  after  the  verb  :  we  therefore  derive  the  following 

RITI.I:    XXI. 

An  objective  case  may  follow  passive  verbs  of  asking, 
teaching,  and  some  others  ;  as,  "  I  was  taught  gram- 
mar." 

O"  Apply  t"  J,  Rule  VL  ;  to  was  taught,  Rule  VIL  ;  to  grammar,  Role 
XXL 

645.  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"  I  was  taught  grammar." 

"  The    presence   of  the  emperor 

was  forbidden  Theresa." 
"  Reading  is  taught  in  almost  ev- 
ery school." 


"  John  taught  me  music." 
"  Music  was  taught  me  by  John.' 
•*  A  question  was  asked  me." 
"  Theresa  was  forbidden  the  pres 
ence  of  the  emperor." 


What  rule  is  given  for  cases  of  this 
description  .'  XX. 

Ry  what  are  jne  and  grammar  govern- 
ed .'  642.     Remark  1 

Will  you  next  parse  the  exercises  un- 
der Rule  XX.  ? 

LXn.  What  is  the  natural  construc- 
tion of  the  passive  voiee  in  reference  to 


the  object  ?  644.  Give  an  example. 
644.  Give  an  example  where  the  re- 
verse takes  place.     644. 

AV'here  is  the  object  placed  ?  644. 

"  I  was  taught  grammar."  Will  you 
parse  /  ?  was  taught  7  grammar  ? 

Will  you  next  take  the  exercises  un- 
der Rule  XXI.  i 


EXERCISES.  107 


LXIII. 

CM.  Wlien  I  say,  "  He  came  lionie  last  May,"  ilic  souse  is,  wlieii  fully  ex- 
pressed, ''  He  came  to  his  lioine  in  last  May."  "  Jolm  continued  four  years  at 
the  university  ;"  tliat  is,  "  during  lour  years."  "  The  horse  ran  a  mile  ;"  Uiat 
is,  "  over  tliespace  of  a  mile."  "  John  went  that  \va\'  5"  that  is,  "  over  that 
way."     From  these  facts  we  derive  the  following 

IIUI.I:     XXII. 

Home,  a7id  nouns  signifying  which  way,  how  far,  how 
long,  or  time  when,  ^TC.,  are  in  the  objective  case ;  a 
^preposition  being  understood. 

647.                          EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 

"  He  came  home  last  May."  "  Susan  rides  out  every  day." 

"  John    continued    four   years  at  "  William   sleeps  comfortably  all 

the  university."  night." 

"  John  went  home  once  a  month."  "  John  was  absent  from  home  six 

"  Charles  studies  si.x  hours  every  years." 

day.'  "  James  lived  six  years  at  Boston, 

"  John  rode  that  way."  twelve  years  at  Dedham." 
"  He  ran  a  mile." 

Note  XVII. — After  tlie  words  Uke  and  unlike,  the  prep- 
osition to  or  7iiifo  i.>5  frequently  understood  ;  as,  "  He  is  like 
his  father  ;"  tliat  is,  "  like  to  his  father."  "  She  is  unhke 
her  sister ;"  that  is,  "  unlike  to  her  sister." 

G45.  EXERCr.SES    IN   SYNTAX. 

"  He  is  like  his  brother."  "  John   behaves   like  a  man  in  a 

"  William,  unlike   his  father,  fal-  violent  rage." 

sified  his  word."  "  He  is  unlike  any  other  mortal." 

Note  XVIII. — Nouns  signifying  duration,  extension, 
quantity,  quality  or  valuation,  are  in  the  objective  case, 
without  any  governing  word.     The  following  are  examples  : 

"  The    Atlantic    ocean    is    three  "  The  cart  weighs  fifteen  hundred 

thousand  miles  (1.)   wide."  pounds." 

"  William's  knife  is  worth  eight-  "  The  wall  which  separates  China 
een  pence,  or  twenty-five  from  Tartary,  commonly  call- 
cents."  ed    the  great  Chinese  wall,  is 

"  For  that  article,  which  is  richly  fifteen    hundred    miles    long, 

worth  a  dollar,(2.)  we  cannot  and    from    twenty    to    thirty 

always  get  fifty  cents."  feet  in  height." 

"  The  chasm  is  fiily  feet  broad." 

Remarks.' — (1.)  Tiie   nnuii   iiiilrs   is  governed  according  to  Note    XVIII. 

('2.)  Apply  NotkXVIH. 

LXriI.     "  He  came  liome  last  May."  Will    you   parse   the   exercises   under 

Wliiit   does   this  mean,  when  more  fully  Rule  XXII.  .' 

expre-sed  '  646.     Will  you  parse  home  ?  What  is  the   note   respecting   like   and 

M,ui7  unlike  1  XVII. 

"John  continued  four  years  at  the  uni-  "He    is    like    hn    father."       How    is 

versity."       "The    horse    ran    a   mile."  /a«Acr  parsed  .'  Note  XVII. 

What   do   these   sentences   mean,  when  Will  you  next  take  tho  remaining  ex- 

fuUj  expressed  i  ercises  under  Note  XVII.  .' 


108  •  ENGLISH  GR^LMMAR. 

Note  XIX. — The  conjunction  as,  after  such,  mayiy,  and 
same,  is  generally  considered  a  relative  pronoun;  as  in  the 
following  examples  : 

"  He  receives  into  liis  school  as     "  Ke  took  sucli  books  as  pleased 

many  scholars  as  (] .)  apply."  him." 

"  Our  instructer,  who  is  scrupu-     "  He  exhibited  the  same  course 
,         lously  exact  in  tlie  execution  of  conduct  as  was  once  before 

of  justice,  punishes  severely  exliibited  on  the   same  occa- 

all  such  as  disobey  his  com-  sion." 

mands." 
Remarks.— [\.)  As  is  aconjunction,  used  here  as  a  relative,  according  to  the 
Note  preccdiiiir;  of  the  third  person  pkiral,  masculine  gender,  agreeing  witli 
scholars,  according  to  Rulk  V. ;  and  ui  the  nominative  case  to  apply,  accord- 
ing to  Rule  VI. 

Note  XX. — The  conjunction  tJta7i  seems  to  have  the 
force  of  a  preposition  before  the  relative  whom,  in  a  sentence 
where  a  comparison  is  made  ;  as  follows  : 

*'  Which,   when   Beelzebub   per-  "  Alfred,   than    whom,   Solomon 

ceived,  than  whom,  (1.)  Satan  excepted,  a  wiser  king  never 

(2.)  excepted,  (3.)  none  higher  reigned,  was  one  of  the  earli- 

sat."  est  English  kings." 

Remarks. — (1.)  Whom,  is  go\erned  by  the  coiijunclion  them,  used  as  a  prep- 
osition, accordiii"^  to  NOte  AX. — {"2.)  AppI}'  Rule  XVIL— (3.)  Participle, 
agreeing  with  Satan,  by  Rule  XIII. — It  is  somewhat  remarkable,  that  if,  in 
he  last  two  examples,  the  personal  pronoiui  he  were  substituted  for  ivhom,  it 
would  he  in  the  nominative  case  ;  as,  "  A  wiser  king  never  reigned  thcui  he," 
that  is,  "  than  he  was." 

649.  SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

Will  you  compose  a  sentence  having  a  proper  example  under  Rule 
I.?  II..?  III..'  IV..?  v.?  VI..?  VII..?  VIII..?  IX..?  X..?  XI..?  XII..? 
XIII..?  XIV.?  XV..?  XVI..?  XVIL?  XVIII..?  XIX..?  XX..?  XXI..? 
XXII..? 

Will  you  construct  a  sentence  descriptive  of  the  calamities  arising 
from  fire?  one,  on  losses  hi/ sraP  one,  on  the  fatal,  effects  of  lightning  ? 
one,  on  the  character  <f  our  forefathers  ''  one,  oir  each  of  the  seasons? 
one,  on  tJie  effects  of  rain?  one,  on  the  manner  of  making  hay?  one, 
on  the  appearance  of  soldiers  when  training?  one,  on  the  celebration 
of  the  fourth  of  July?  one.  on  the  utilittj  of  fire?  one,  on  the  utility 
of  wood?     one,  on  tiic  usefulness  of  the  coic?  one,  on  fruit  ? 

^\'lIen  is  the  coiijunctio;i  as  u.sod  as  a  What   does   Englisli  grammar  teach? 

rel.ative  jironoun  ■■  Note  XIX.  2B8.      How   many  parts   of  speech   aro 

Will  you  parse  as,  in  llie  phrase  "  He  there  in  English  .'  299. 

Toceivod  into  his  school  as  many  scholars  What  does  orlhngrapjiy  include  ?    291. 

as  applied"  •"  Note  XIX.  What  does  it  toach  ns  .'  201. 

Will  you  parse  llie  remaining  cxerei-ics  What  does  rtymulogij  leach  .?  293. 

under  this  Note  .?  Wluit  are  projicr  nouns  .?  002. 

When  is  (A/j.'i  considered  a  preposition.'  Wiiat  are  common  nouns  i  301. 

Note  XX.     Give  an  example.  In  what  manner  may  proper  narocs  ho 

What  would  Ijo  the  eiToct  of  usinj  the  used  as  common  names  .?  303. 

personal  pronoun  instead  of  the  relative  .?  IIow   may  common  names  be  used  to 

ObBervation   under  Note  XX.     Give  an  rojirfsent  individuals  :  304. 

example  What  is  a  collective  noun  .?  306. 

Will  you  now  take  tlie  sentences  lobe  What  four  things  belongto  nouns  .' 308 

parsed  and  written  .'  What  is  gender.'  312.     Masculine  gon- 

Uow  many   articles   are   there  .'    351.  der  .'     314.       Feminine     gender  '    315. 

Will  vou  name  them  .'    3.51,     When  do  Common  gender  ?  316.     Neuter  gender  ' 

we  use  o  ?  87,  357.     When  an  ?  8ti.  317. 


PARTS  OF  SPEECH.  100 

LXIV.     OF    WORDS    USED    AS    DIFFERENT 
PARTS  OF   SPEECH. 

650.  That  is  a  relative, 

■    When  who  or  loliich  may  be  substituted  for  it,  and  malvc  sense ; 
as,  "  The  man  that  [who]  arrived  yesterday." 

651.  That  is  a  demonstrative  pronoun, 

When  it  is  joined  with  a  noun  to  point  it  out ;  as,  "  That  niaR  is 
intelligent." 

652.  That  is  a  conjunction. 

In  all  cases  w  hen  it  is  neither  a  relative  nor  a  demonstrative  pro- 
noun ;  as,  "  He  studies  that  he  may  learn." 

653.  But  is  a.  jji'eposition, 

When  it  has  the  sense  of  except;  as,  "All  but  [except]  John 
came." 

654.  But  is  an  advcrh. 

When  it  has  the  sense  of  only  ;  as,  '•  This  is  but  [only]  doing  oui 
duty." 

655.  But  is  a  conjunction, 

In  all  cases  when  it  is  neither  an  adverb  nor  preposition  ;  as,  "  He 
called,  but  I  refused  to  go." 

aSii.  As  is  a  relative, 

When  it  follows  vinnij,  such,  or  saine  ;  as,  "  Let  such  as  hoar  take 
heed." 

657.  As  is  an  adverb, 

When  it  is  joined  to  an  adverb  or  adjective  in  the  sense  of  50  ;  as. 
"  He  does  as  well  as- he  can." 

658.  As  is  a  conjunction, 

In  all  cases  except  when  it  is  an  adverb  or  relative  ;  as,  "  He  did 
as  I  directed  him." 

659.  Either  is  a  conjunction, 

When  it  corresponds  to  or  ;  as,  "  Either  the  one  or  the  other." 

660.  Either  is  a  distributive  ■pronoun, 

When  it  means  "one  of  the  two;"  as,  "You  can  take  either 
road." 

661.  Both  is  a  conjunction. 

When  it  is  followed  by  and;  as,  "  We  assisted  him  both  for  his 
sake  a,nd  our  own." 

How  may  nouns,  naturally  neuter,  be  noun  ?  651.     Give  an  example.     When  a 

convertwt  into  the  masculine  or  feminine  conjunction  ?  662.     Give  an  example, 

yender  ?  318.  When  is  iu£  a  preposition  ?  C53.     Give 

Wliat  is  the  feminine  corresponding  to  an   example.      When    an  adverb  .'    654. 

bachelor  1    319.      How   is   the   feminine  Give  an  example.     When  a  conjunction  ? 

hero  formed  ?  655.     Give  an  example. 

Will  you   spel!   the    feminine   corres-  When  is  as  a   relative.'    656.     Give  an 

por.ding  to  lad  ?  Una  ?  benefactor  f    319.  example.     When  an  adverb  .'    657.     Give 

How  is  the  feminine  here  formed  ?  an  example.     When  a  conjunction  .'    658. 

Will   you   spell   the   feminine   corres-  Give  an  example, 

ponding  lO  baron  ?   pott  ?   priest  ?  Jew  ?  When    is    either  a  conjunction .'    659. 

totaryl  tutor  1  hero!  dukel  instructer  ?  Give  an  example.      When  a  distributive 

3jg,  pronoun  ?  660.     Give  an  example. 

LXIV.     When  is  that  a  relative  .'  650.  When  is  both  a  conjunction  '  661.     Give 

Give  an  example.     A  demonstrative  pro-  anexample.     When  an  adjective  pronoun? 

662,    Give  an  example. 

10 


110  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

662.  Both  is  an  adjective  pronoun. 

When  it  means  "  the  two  ;"  as,  "  Both  the  men  are  guilty," 

603.   Yet  is  a  conjunction. 

When  it  follows  though;  as,  "  Tiiough  he  rei,roves  me,  yet  1 
esteem  him."  In  all  other  cases,  it  is  a.\\  adverb  ;  as,  "  That  event 
has  yet  to  come." 

664.  For  is  a  conjunction, 

When  it  means  the  same  as  because ;  as,  "  He  trusted  him,  for  he 
knew  that  he  would  not  deceive  him." 

665.  For  is  a  preposition. 

In  all  instances  except  when  it  is  a  conjunction  ;  as,  "  He  works 
for  me." 

666.  What  is  a  compound  relative,  •!• 
When  it  stands  for  "  that  which  ;"  as,  "  I  will  take  what  [that 

which]  you  send  me." 

667.  What  is  an  interrogative  relative  pronoun. 
When  used  in  asking  questions  ;  as,  "  What  do  you  want .'" 

668.  What  is  an  adjective  pronoun. 

When  joined  with  a  noun  ;  as,  "  What  strange  things  he  said  !" 

669.  What  is  a  compound  adjective  pronoun. 

When  joined  with  nouns,  and  has  the  sense  of  two  or  more  words; 
as,  "  In  what  manner  he  succeeded,  is  unknown  to  me  ;"  that  is, 
"  The  manner  in  which  he  succeeded,  is  unknown  to  me." 

670.  What  is  an  interjection. 

When  used  to  express  wonder  ;  as,  "  What !  take  my  money  V 

671.  Then  is  a  conjunction. 

When  it  has  the  sense  of  therefore  ;  as,  "  If  he  has  commanded  it, 
then  I  must  obey." 

672.  Then  is  an  adverb. 

When  it  refers  to  time  ;  as,  "  Did  you  hear  it  thunder  then  ?" 

673.  Much  is  a  noun, 

When  it  stands  for  quantity  ;  as,  "  Where  much  is  given,  much 
will  be  required." 

674.  Much  is  an  adjective, 

WliQU  it  is  joined  to  nouns  ;  as,  "  Much  labor  fatigues  us." 

675.  Much  is  an  adverb, 

When  it  qualifies  the  same  parts  of  speech  that  the  adverb  does ; 
as,  "  Thou  art  much  mightier  than  I." 

676.  Mori:  is  a  noun. 

When  it  implies  quantity  ;  as,  "  The  more  we  have,  the  more  we 
want.' 


When  is  yet  a  conjunction  .'  663.     Oive  When  an  interjection  .'   670.     Give  an  ex- 

(in   example.       When    an    ailveib  '    663.  ample.  .      ,  „,      _. 

Give  an  example  Wlien  is  then  a  conjunction.''  b7J.    Orive 

When  i's /or  a  conjunction  .'  664.     Give  an    example.      When    an    adverb.'    672. 

an  example      When  a  preposition  '    665  Give  ajj  example. 
Give  an  example  When  is  '-lufA  a  noun  >_  673.     Give  ao 

When   is  what  a  compound   relative'  example.    When  an  adjective .'  674.    Give 

6GG      Give  an  example.     When  an  inter-  an  example.       When   an    adverb  .'    675. 

rocative  relative  pronoun  '  6117      Give  an  Give  an  example. 

example       When  an  adjective   pronoun.'        When  is  7nore  a  noun  .'    676.     Give  an 

663      Give  an  example.      When  a  com-  example 
pound  'ironoun       669      Give  an  examole 


EXERCISES. 


Ill 


677.  More  and  most  are  adjectives. 

When  they  qualify  a  noun  ;  as,  "  The  more  joy  I  have,  the  more 
sorrow  1  expect  ;"  "  Most  men  are  mistaken  in  their  pursuit  of  hap- 
piness." 

678.  More  and  most  are  adverbs. 

When  used  in  comparisons ;  as,  "  This  boy  is  more  obedient  than 
that;"  "  The  soil  of  Cuba  is  most  fertile." 


G79. 


PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES  IN  SYNTAX. 


"  They  perfume  their  garments." 

"  A  perfume  is  a  sweet  odor." 

"  They  rise  early  in  the  morn- 
ing." 

"  A  rise  sometimes  signifies  the 
beginning." 

"  Rufus  speaks  the  language  of 
truth." 

"  James  performed  his  part  well." 

"  A  well  is  a  fountain  of  water." 

"  A  well  man  is  one  who  enjoys 
his  health." 

"  We  frequently  walk  in  the  gar- 
den." 

"  The  Jews  fast  often." 

"  He  walks  very  fast." 

"  The  refuse  signifies  the  worth- 
less remains." 

"  Desert  not  a  friend." 

"  Joseph's  brethren  came  and 
bowed  down  before  him." 

"  William  went  after  his  slate." 

"  The  man  that  I  saw,  was  ex- 
ecuted." 

"  That  man  that  you  met  yester- 
day in  the  street,  was  taken 
and  sent  to  Boston,  that  he 
might  have  an  impartial  trial." 

"  We  assisted  him  both  for  your 
sake  and  our  own." 


2. 


"  His  elder  brethren  came  before 
Benjamin  did." 

"  John  left  after  William  came." 

"  Evil  communications  corrupt 
good  manners." 

"  Corrupt  conversation  is  very 
foolish." 

"  A  walk  in  the  fields  in  the  sum- 
mer season  is  delightful." 

"  A  true  fast  is  abstaining  from 
iniquity." 

"  Sin  is  a  moral  evil,  and  the 
cause  of  natural  evils." 

"  Protest  not  rashly,  lest  tliou 
have  to  repent  of  it." 

"  A  protest  is  a  solemn  declara- 
tion against  a  thing." 

"  Do  nothing  rashly,  lest  thou 
precipitate  thyself  into  inex- 
tricable difficulty." 

"  Hasty  promises  are  seldom 
kept." 

Did  you  hear  the  report  of  the 

cannon  then  ?" 
Where    much    is    given,  much 

will  be  required.  ' 
Future  time  is  yet  to  come." 
He   trusted   him,  for   he   knew 

that   he    would    not    deceive 

him." 


When  are  mm-e  and  most  adjectives  .' 
677.  Give  e.\amp!es  of  each.  VVIien  ad- 
verbs .''  (578.     Give  e.\amp|ps  of  each. 

What  is  number  7  5.  What  does  the 
singular  nuniher  denote  .'  8.  What  the 
plural  .'  10. 

Wliat  nouns  liave  the  sinj^ular  form  on- 
ly ?  3-24.  What  the  plural  .'  32.5.  What 
are  the  san)e  in  both  numbers  .'  32G. 

How  is  the  plural  number  of  nouns  gen- 
erally formed  !  327. 

When  nouns  end  in  ck,  sh,  &c.,  how  do 
they  form  the  plural  ?  328. 

How  do  those  ending  in /or/';  ?  329. 

How  is  the  plural  formed,  when  the  sin- 
gular ends  in  ?/,  with  no  other  vowel  in 
the  same  syllable  }  ,330. 

What  is  case  ?  333.  The  nominative 
case  ?  335.     Possessive  case  .'  337.     How 


formed  .'  338.  How  formed  when  the  sin- 
gular ends  in  s.?  ?  341. 

What  does  the  objective  case  express  ? 
343. 

Will  you  decline  man  ?  book  ?  345 
chair  ?  345. 

Will  you  parse  the  promiscuous  exer- 
cises ? 

What  is  an  adjective  ?  363.  What 
does  the  positive  state  express  ?  365. 
Comparative  .'  366.  Superlative  .'  367. 
How  is  the  comparative  formed  in  mono- 
syllables .'  3ii9.  How  in  .more  svHables 
tiian  one  .'  370. 

How  do  you  compare  the  following  ad- 
jectives ? —  good  t  bad!  wise  f  little  1 
small  ?  virtuous  ?  many  ?  old  ?  115. 

When  does  an  adjectivo  become  a  noyn 
in  parsing  .'  378 


112 


ENGLISH  GRAMJIAR. 


''  Both  the  men  are  guilty." 

"  Although  he  reproves  me,  yet  I 

esteem  him." 
'"'  All  but  John  came." 
"  This  is  but  doing  our  duty." 
"  He  called  me,  but  1  refused  to 

go." 
'  Let  such  as  hear  take  heed." 
"  He  did  as  I  directed  him." 
'  You  may  take  either  the  one  or 

the  other." 
"  Either  road  will  conduct  you  to 

the  right  place." 
'  If  he  has  commanded  it,  then  I 

must  obe}^." 

"  Susan  is  determined  to  learn." 
'  By  framing  excuses  he  prolong- 

fed  his  stay." 
'  The  man  who  is  faithfully  at- 
tached to  religion  may  be  re- 
lied on  with  confidence." 
"  James,  do  visit  me." 


He  works  for  me." 
He  refused  what  \v4s  sent  him." 
What  strange  things  he  saw  !' 
In  what  manner  he  succeeded 

is  unknown  to  me." 
What !  will  you  take  my  life  .'" 
Tiie  more  we  have,  the  more 

we  want." 
The  more  joy  I  have,  the  more 

sorrow  I  e.xpect." 
'  The  most  dutiful  children  are 

the  happiest  children." 
■  Much  labor  fatigues  me." 
•  Thou  art  much  mightier  than  1 


Virtue  and  vice  are  opposites." 

When  John's  father  asked  him 

that  question,  he  heard  him 

but  refused  to  answer  him." 

The  wall  is  sixty  feet  high." 

To  meet  our  friends  after  a  long 

absence  alFords  US  much  joy.' 


LXV.    CONTRACTIONS. 

680.  Of  the  Awdliary  11a  \e,  also  of  Had. 

They've  forsaken  him.'  "  I've  satisfied  myself. 

"  I'd  gone  when  you  came."  "  They'd   determined  to  let  him 

•'  They'd     just     returned     from  go." 

town." 

t581.  Of  Will  and  Would. 

"  I'll  finish  my  work  first."  "  He  is  Still  determined  that  he'll 

"  They'd  sing  songs  till  midnight,  not  forbear." 

if  they  were  urged."  "  He'll  at  last  mind  me." 


Will  you  iiaine  n  few  ailjcctives  nliich 
liavo  in  tlieinselvcs  a  eupcrlativo  eigiiilica- 
lion  ?  37 !. 

What  is  a  pronoun  ?  381.  A  personal 
pronoun  ?  382.  Why  callsd  j)ersonal .' 
382. 

Ilow  many  persons  liavo  pronouns  in 
each  nuniber  .'  333.  How  many  num- 
bers .'  38 1. 

To  which  of  the  pronouns  is  gender  ap- 
plied ?  382. 

Ilow  many  cases  have  pronouns  .'  381. 

VV'ill  you  decline  /  ?  thou  1  he'!  she  1 
U  7  127. 

What  kind  of  a  pronoun  is  myself!  386. 
Ilow  formed  .'  38G. 

What  is  a  relative  pronoun  .'  409. 
Why  called  relative  ?  408. 

What  is  said  of  tlie  relative  lokat!  429. 

tiow  ought  who  to  be  applied .'    412. 


How  lohich  ?  413.  How  may  that  be 
used  .''  415. 

When  are  pronouns  called  inteiroga- 
tive  .'  431. 

Wliat  are  adjective  pronouns?  390. 
How  many  kinds  of  adjective  pronouns 
are  there  .'  391. 

Which  arc  the  demonstrative .'  398. 
Why  so  called?  398.  The  distributive? 
393.  Why  so  called  ?  393.  The  indefi- 
nite ?  402.     Why  so  called  ?  401. 

To  what  do  t}us  and  that  refer  ?  400. 

Will  you  decline  one  ?  404.  other  ? 
403. 

What  is  the  rule  by  which  pronouni 
agree  with  their  antecedents  ?  V. 

Which  words  in  sentences  are  antece 
dents  ?  420. 

What  are  subsequents  ?  431. 

Will  you  parse  the  exercises  marked  9 


CONTRACTIONS  113 

682.  O/"  Am  and  Is. 

"  That  man's  rich."  "  'Tis  strange  tli.it  she   will   not 

"  'Tis  true  she's  dead."  regarii  the  kind  assistance  of 

"  I'm  sorry   that  you   have  mis-  her  friend." 

spent  your  time." 

683.  O/*  Cannot  ayid  Will  not. 

"  He    can't    endure    such    afflic-     "  He  won't  disobey  m6>." 

tions."  "  You   won't  mistake   the   direc- 

*'  You    can't   be    absent   at   such  tion." 

times." 

684.  Omissions  of  the  Principal  Verb  after  an  Merrogative 

Sentence. 
•'  Who  will   assist  me  ?"  "  John"     "  What  will  make  me  respectable 

[will  assist  me].  and  happy  ?"  "  Virtue." 

"What   sent    our   forefathers    to     "Who    taught    him    grammar.'" 

this  country.'"   "  The  love  of  "  Mr.  Williams." 

liberty." 

685.  Omissions  of  the  Principal  Verb  after  an  Auxilianj. 

"  Stephen  will  go  if  John  will"     "  He    received    me    in   the   sa.rne 
[(co].  manner  that  I  would  you^" 

"  Susan    shall    walk,   but    John     "  I  will  do  it  as  soon  as  I  can." 
shall  not."  "  The  work  is  not  completed,  but 

"  I  have  recited  ;  have  you  .'"  soon  will  be." 

686.  Omissions  of  the  Principal  Verb  after  Than  and  As. 

"  Thomas  is  a  better  scholar  than     "  Johnson  is  richer  than  James." 
William"  [is].  "  Susan    is    not   so    beautiful    as 

"  He  was  more  beloved  than  Cin-  Mary." 

thia,   but   not   so    much    ad-     "  She   is  more  playful    than   hei 
mired."  brotlier." 

687.  Omissions  of  the  verb  To  be. 

"  Sweet   the    pleasure,    rich    the  "  Deliglitful  task,  to  rear  the  ten- 
treasure."  der  thouglit, 
"  A  child  of  freedom  thou."  To  teach  the  young  idea  how  to 
"  Sweet  the  music  of  birds."  sJioot." 
"  Dear  the  schoolboy's  sport." 


What  is  a  verb  .'  438.  live.'    472.      Suhjun&tive  .'    456.      Infini 

What  is  an  active  verb  ?  439.  tive  ■"  479. 

When  is  an  active  verb  transitive.'  440.  What  are  participles  .'  498.     How  may 

When  intransitive  .'  441.  the    participles   in    ing   he   distinguished 

What   is   a   passive   verb .'    444.     How  from    otlier   wonls   of    like   termination . 

formed  .'  .510.  500. 

How  may  a  transitive  verb  be   known?  How  many,  and  which  are  the   partici 

J54  pies  .'J    Wliat  does   the  present   express  .' 

liow  an  intransitive.'  1.54.  ;'.0O.     Perfect .'  502.     Compound  perfect .' 

^Vhat  is  a  neuter  verb  .'  450.  504. 

Will  you  next  take  the  exercises  mark-  LXV.     Will  you  next  parse  the  con- 

gj  3  >  tractions  ?  080. 

Wiiat  belong  to  verbs  .'*  What  is  tense  ?  494.     What  is  the  pres- 

How  rnanv   numbers  have  they  .'    How  ent  used  for  ?  480.     The  perfect .'  Tmper- 

manv  persons.'!  feet  .'    488.     Pluperfect  .'    491.     First  fu- 

What  is  mood  .'    451.     How    many   arc  tore  .'  492.     ^^econd  future  .'  493. 

there  .'  481.     Will  you  name  them  .'  Under  what  circumstances   do   we   use 

What  is  the  indicative  mood  used  for  .'  the  present  tense  to  denoto  the  relative 

452.     The  potential .'    453.     The  irapera-  time  of  a  future  action  ?  484. 


•  Mood,  tense,  Bumber  and  person.        t  Threp.        }  Three— the  present,  perfect,  and  compound  perted 

10* 


U4 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


688.  Omissiom  o/'Mat,  Might,  Could,  Would,  and  Sboula, 
"  Live  long  and  be  happy."  "  He  might  not  we*p,  nor  laugii, 
"  Who  will  entreat  tlie  Lord  that  nor  sing." 

he  spare  our  hves  ?"  "  Should  1  forgive  you,  and  allow 

"  I  could  not  think,  nor  speak,  you  to  depart,  you  would  not 

nor  hear."  reform." 

689.  Omissions  of  the  Conjundion  before  the  Verb  in  the  Sub- 

junctive Mood. 
*'  If  he  will  repent  and  reform,  I     "  Hud  I  improved  my  tinie  asl 


ought  to  have  done,  I  should 
have  been  well  qualified  for 
business." 
Were    there    no   alternative,  I 
v/ould  not  do  that." 


will  assist  him." 
"  Unless  good  order  be  restored, 
and  the  former  officers  be  re- 
elected, there  will  be  an  end 
to  the  administration  of  jus- 
tice." 
690.   OinissiGHS  of  For  after  Verbs  implying  the  ielea  of  serving. 
"  Make  me  a  pen."  '•  Bring  nie  some  water." 

"  Order  me  a  carriage."  "  Purchase  him  a  knife." 

69L  Omissions  of  the  Interjection. 

"  Sweet  child  !  lovely  cliild  !  thy     ''  Thou  Preserver  and  Creator  ot 

parents  are  no  more."  all  mankind." 

"  Sweet  blossom  !  precious  to  my     "  My  beloved  Ulrica  !  hast  thou, 

heart."  too,  forgotten  me  .''" 

692.  Oinissio7i3  of  the  Relative. 

"Several    men    are    tliere    come     "  I  trust  that  he  I  desire  to  see  so 
from  Europe."  v.v  cli,  will  speedily  return.'" 


LXVL  INVERTED  SENTENCES. 


693.         The  JSfbminative  Case  placed  after  the  Verb. 
"  Smack   went  the   wliip,   round  guished  for  his  learning  and 

went  the  wheels;  politeness." 

Were  ever  folks  so  glad  ?  '  "  And  in  soft  ringlets  waved  her 

"  There  goes  a  man  alike  distin-  golden  hair." 


In  what  sort  of  descriptions  do  ivo  uso 
tht  prosont  for  tl'.e  past  tuiisn  .'  486. 

VVIiat  is  t!ic  ronjiigatioii  of  a  vorb?  531. 

What  is  the  conjugation  of  an  aclivo 
verb  styled  .'  532.     A  passive  verb.'  532. 

How  many  toii«e3  has  the  indicative.' 
SSf).  Potential.'  537.  Suljunctive.'  523. 
fmpprativo.'  .529.     Infinitive.'  523. 

What  is  tlie  sign  of  the  pioseat  indica- 
tive .'  519.  The  imperfect.'  520.  IVr- 
Ibct.'  521.  IMuperffflct .'  5-22.  First  fu- 
ture .'  523.  Second  future  .'  524.  Tlio 
potential  mood  .'  515.  Infinitive  .'  517. 
Subjunctive  .'  510.  How  many  persons 
nas  the  imperative.'  516.  How  many 
tenses  .'  529.  How  many  forms  Ims  the 
subjunctive  mood  .'  4t>l.  In  what  do  they 
Jiflcr .'  461. 


Will  you  now  parse  tlie  omissions  ? 
684,  &c. 

How  is  the  passive  verb  formed  .'  510. 

Will  you  decline  love  in  the  iadicativo 
present,  passive.'  and  the  verb  to  be  in  thte 
imperfect .'  Pcrfict  .'  I'luperfect  .'  First 
future .'  Second  future  .'  Present  poten- 
tial .'  Imperfect .'  Purfoct .'  Pluperfect  .' 
Present  subjunctive,  common  form  .'  Im- 
poilbct  .'  Pe'rlsct  .'  Pluperfect  .'  Firot  fu- 
ture .'  Second  futuro  .' 

In  wdiat  voice,  mood,  tense,  number  and 
person,  is  "  I  love"  .'  "  Wo  love"  .'  "  They 
are  loved"  .'  "You  aio"  .'  "  I  did  iearn"  ? 
"John  was  instructed".'  "He  was".' 
"They  have  returned".'  "  Havfe  IhSy 
go!ie .'"  "They  have  been".'  "I  had 
had"  ?   "  Thoy  had  been  distinguished"  ^ 


SENTENCES  TKANSPOSED.  115 

694.  The  Objective  Case  before  the  Verb. 

"  Tyrants  no  more  their  savage  "  Me  glory  summons  to  the  mar- 

uature  kept,  tial  scene." 

And  foes  to  virtue  wondered  how  "  The  rolls  of  fame  I  will  not  now 

tliey  wept."  explore." 

695.  SENTENCES  TO  BE  WRITTEN. 

Will  you  compose  a  sentence  exemplifying  Rule  VIII.  .'  One, 
Rule  IX..'  X..'  XI.?  Xn.?  XIII..'  XIV..'  Will  you  compose  a 
sentence  on  the  use  of  the  dog  ?  One,  on  the  clouds?  One,  on  night  ? 
One,  on  wind?  One,  on  snoio  ?  One,  ow  hail?  One,  on  ice?  One, 
on  skating  ?  One,  on  fishing  ?  One,  on  courage?  One,  on  cowardice? 
One,  on  filial  duty  ?    One,  on  indolence  ?    One,  on  schools  ? 

696.  SENTENCES  TRANSPOSED. 

"  Here  rests  his  head  upon  the  lap  of  earth, 
A  3'outh,  to  fortune  and  to  fame  unknown." 

Transposed. 
"  A  youth,  unknown  to  fortune  and  to  fame,  rests  here  his  head 
upon  tiie  lap  of  earth." 

"  When,  young,  life's  journey  I  began, 

The  glittering  prospect  charmed  my  eyes  ; 
I  saw  along  the  extended  plain, 

Joy  after  joy  successive  rise  : 
But  soon  I  found  'twas  all  a  dream. 

And  learned  the  fond  pursuit  to  slum. 
Where  lew  can  reacli  the  purposed  aim, 

And  lliousands  daily  are  undone." 

Ti-a7isposed. 
'•  I  began  life's  journey  when  young,  and  the  glittering  prospect 
charmed  my  eyes  ;  I  saw  joy  after  joy  successive  rise,  along  the  ex- 
tended plain  :  but  soon  I  found  it  was  all  a  dream  ;  and  learned  to 
shun  the  fond  purpiit.  where  few  can  reach  tJie  purposed  aim,  and 
thousands  are  daily  undone."    " 

"  Needful  austerities  our  wills  restrain. 
As  thorns  fence  in  the  tender  plant  from  harm." 

Transposed. 
"  Needful  austerities  restrain  our  wills,  as  thorns  fence  in  the  ten- 
der plant  from  iiarm." 

"Tliou    hidn  been"?     "You   sliall   be        Will  you  give  the  synopsis  oC  desb-e  in 

tauglit"  .'  "  Sliall  1  bo  punisIieJ  .'"     "He  the   active  voice,   with  the    participles.' 

shall  have  been".'  Of  the  same  in  the  pas.sive  .'  Of  do  in  tlio 

LXVI.     Will  you  parse   the   iiiveited  active  .'  Tn  the  passive  .' 
sentences?  693,  &c.  When  is  a  verb  called   rognkir  ?  533 

In  what  voice,  moot),  tense,  number  and  When  irregular  .-'  r)3t. 
person,  is  "  Love  thou"  ?    "I  may  go".'        Will  you  repeat  the  present  and  imper- 

"  You  may  be  regarded".'    "You   might  feet    tenses,   also    the  perfect  participle, 

be  rejoiced"  .'    "  She.  may  have   been  re-  of  a»t  ?    see?    hear!    do  7    weep  7  sink  7 

fused".'    "  We  should  have  been"  .'    "If  swim  7 

I  have"?    "Ii'   thou    have"?    "  If  thou        Will  you  next  take  the  sentences  to  bo 

hast"  ?  "  To  have"  ?  "  To  have  been"?  written  ? 

Will  you  give  the  synopsis  of  learn,        What  are  auxiliary  verbs  ?  511. 
through  all  the  moods,  tenses,  &.C.,  in  the        How  many  and  which  are  they  ?  519. 
first    person,    including    the    participle?        What  are  defective  verbs  ?  579. 
/.«arn,  in  like  manner,  in  the  passive?        What  is  an  adverb  ?  588.    Why  so  call 

Tho  verb  to  be  iu  the  same  manner  ?  ed  ?  283 


116 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


"  On  some  fond  breast  the  parting  soul  relies, 
Some  pious  drops  the  closing  eye  requires  ; 
E'en  from  the  tomb  the  voice  of  nature  cries, 
E'en  in  our  ashes  live  their  w^onted  fires." 

Transposed. 
"  The  parting  soul  relies  on  some  fond  breast ;  the  closing  eye 
requires  some  pious  drops  ;  the  voice  of  nature  cries,  even  from  the 
tomb;  and  their  wonted  fires  live  even  in  our  ashes." 

"  From  lofty  themes,  from  thoughts  that  soared  on  high, 
And  opened  wondrous  scenes  above  the  sky. 
My  Muse  !  descend  ;    indulge  my  fond  desire* 
With  softer  tlioughts  my  melting  soul  inspire 
And  smooth  my  numbers  to  a  female's  praise 
A  partial  world  will  listen  to  my  lays, 
While  Anna  reigns,  and  sets  a  female  name 
Unrivalled  in  the  glorious  lists  of  fame." 

Transposed. 
"  Omy  Muse  !  descend  thou  from  lofiLj'  themes,  and  from  thoughts 
that  soared  on  higli,  and  opened  wondrous  scenes  above  the  sky ; 
indulge  thou  my  fond  desire  ;  ajid  do  tiiou  inspire  my  melting  soul 
with  softer  thoughts,  and  smooth  my  numbers  to  a  female's  praise  ; 
a  partial  world  will  listen  to  my  lays,  while  Anna  reigns,  and  sets  a 
female  name  unrivalled  in  the  glorious  lists  of  fame." 


In  vvhat  manner  are  aiiverlis  compareii  ? 
23ti,  2.34. 

What  are  the  phrases  wliicli  do  the  of- 
fice of  adverbs  called  .'  589. 

Will  you  name  a  few  .'  5^9. 

What  is  a  preposition  i  59,'). 

Will  you  repeat  the  list  of  prepositions  .' 
247. 

What  is  a  conjunction  .'  002.  Con- 
junction copulative  i"  2r"i5.  Why  so  call- 
eil  .'  264.  Conjunction  disjunctive  .'  274. 
Why  so  called  .'  271. 

Will  you  repeat  the  list  of  copulative 
conjunctions.'  206.  Of  disjunctive  coti- 
jtiiictions  .'  275. 

What  is  an  interjection  .'  607.  Why 
eo  called  .'  283.     Mention  a  few  .'  285. 

What  is  syntax  ?  296.  What  is  a  sen- 
tence .'  252.     A  simple  sentence.?  253. 


What  is  the  rule  for  the  agreement  of 
nouns?  XV.  Articles?  11.,  III.  Ad- 
jectives? IV.  Pronouns?  V.  Verlis  ? 
V'll.  Participles  ?  XIII.  Agreement  of 
a  verh  plural  with  two  nouns  singular? 
XVIII.  Adjective  pronouns  and  numer- 
als ?  Note  I. 

What  is  the  rule  by  which  a  verb  agrees 
with  a  noun  of  multitude,  or  collective 
noun  ?  Note  XVI.  Rule  for  the  objective 
case  after  a  transitive  verb  ?  VIII. 

What  is  tlio  rule  for  the  objective  case 
after  a  preposition  ?  X.  After  a  partici- 
ple ?  XIV.  Rule  for  the  adverb  ?  IX. 
Rule  respecting  the  interjections  O.'  oh! 
all !  &c.  ?     Note  X. 

Will  you  parse  the  sentences  marked 
transposed  ? 


GENERAL  OBSERVATIONS. 


SYNTAX. 


That  part  of  Grammar  which  treats  of  the  formation  and  sound 
of  the  letters,  the  combination  of  letters  into  syllables,  and  syl- 
lables into  words,  is  called  Orthography. 

That  part  which  treats  of  the  difterent  sorts  of  words,  their 
various  changes  and  their  derivations,  is  called  Etymology. 

That  part  which  treats  of  tlie  union  and  right  order  of  words 
in  the  formation  of  sentences,  is  called  Syntax. 

Grammar  may  be  considered  as  consisting  of  tAvo  species, 
Universal  and  Particular.  Universal  Grammar  explains  the 
principles  which  are  common  to  all  languages.  Particular 
Grammar  applies  those  principles  to  a  particular  language,  modi- 
fying them  according  to  the  genius  of  that  tongue,  and  the 
established  practice  of  the  best  writers  and  speakers  by  whom  it 
is  used. 

Language,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word,  signifies  the  ex- 
pression of  our  ideas,  and  their  various  relations,  by  certain  ar 
ticulate  sounds,  which  are  used  as  the  signs  of  those   ideas  and 
relations.     An  articulate  sound  is  the  sound  of  the  human  voice, 
formed  by  the  organs  of  speech. 

Letters  are  the  representatives  of  certain  articulate  sounds, 
the  elements  of  the  language. 

The  letters  of  the  English  Language,  called  the  English  Al- 
phabet, are  twenty-six  in  number,  each  of  which  constitutes  the 
first  principle,  or  least  part  of  a  word. 

Letters  are  divided  into  vowels  and  consonants. 

A  vot\'^el  is  a  letter  that  can  be  perfectly  sounded  by  itself. 
*f'he  vowels  arc  a,  e,  i,  o,  n,  and  sometimes  w  and  y.  W  and  y 
are  consonants  when  they  begin  a  word  or  syllable  ;  but  in  eve- 
ry other  situation  they  are  vowels. 

A  consonant  is  a  letter  that  cannot  be  perfectly  sounded  with- 
out the  aid  of  a  vowel  ;  as,  h,  d,  f,  I.  All  letters  except  the 
vowels  are  consonants. 

Consonants  are  divided  into  mutes  and  semi-vowels. 

The  mutes  cannot  be  sounded  at  all,  without  the  aid  of  a  vow- 
el.    They  are  fr,  j>,  t,  d,  k,  and  c  and  g  hard. 


118  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

The  semi-vowels  have  an  imperfect  sound  of  themselves. 
They  are  f,  Z,  m,  n,  r,  r,  s,  z,  x,  and  c  and  g  soft. 

Four  of  the  semi-vowels,  namely,  Z,  rn,  n,  r,  are  called  liquids, 
because  they  readily  unite  with  other  consonants,  and  flow,  as  it 
were,  into  their  sounds. 

A  diphthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowels,  pronounced  by  a  sin- 
gle impulse  of  the  voice  ;  as,  oi  in  voice,  ou  in  ounce. 

A  triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels,  pronounced  in  like 
manner  ;  as,  eau  in  beau,  iew  in  vieiv. 

A  proper  diphthong  is  that  in  which  both  the  vowels  are 
sounded  ;  as,  01  in  voice,  ou  in  ounce. 

An  improper  diplitliong  has  but  one  of  the  vowels  sounded  ; 
as,  ea  in  eagle,  oa  in  boat. 

A  Syllable  is  a  sound,  either  simple  or  compounded,  uttered 
by  a  single  impulse  of  the  voice,  and  constituting  a  word  or  part 
of  a  wurd  ;  as,  a,  an,  ant. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  Monosyllable  ;  a  word  of 
two  syllables,  a  Dissyllable  ;  a  word  of  three  syllables,  a  Trisyl- 
lable ;  a  word  of  four  or  more  syllables,  a  Polysyllable. 

Words  axe  articulate  sounds,  used  by  common  consent  as 
signs  of  our  ideas. 

Words  are  of  two  sorts,  primitive  and  derivative. 

A  primitive  word  is  that  which  cannot  be  reduced  to  a  simpler 
•word  in  the  language  ;  as,  man,  good. 

A  derivative  word  is  that  which  may  be  reduced  to  a  simpler 
word  ;  as,  man/id,  goodness. 

The  elementary  sounds,  under  their  smallest  combination,  pro- 
duce a  syllable  ;  syllables,  pro])erly  combined,  produce  a  word  ; 
words,  duly  combined,  produce  a  sentence  ;  and  sentences,  prop- 
erly combined,  produce  an  oration,  or  discourse. 

A  sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words,  forming  complete 
sense. 

Sentences  are  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  compound. 

A  simple  sentence  has  in  it  but  one  subject,  and  one  finite* 
verb  ;  as,  "  Life  is  short." 

A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  simple  sentences 
connected  together  ;  as,  "  Life  is  short,  and  art  is  long." 

As  sentences  themselves  are  divided  into  simple  and  compound,  so  the 
members  of  sentences  may  be  divided  likewise  into  simple  and  compound 
members  ;  for  whole  sentences,  whether  simple  or  compound,  may  become 
members  of  other  sentences,  by  means  of  some  additional  coimection  ;  as  in 
the  following  example  :  "  The  ox  knoweth  his  o^^•ner,  and  the  ass  his  master's 
crib  ;  but  Israel  doth  not  know,  my  people  doth  not  consider."  This  sentence 
consists  of  two  compounded  members,  each  of  which  is  subdivided  into  two 
sirhple  members,  which  are  properl}'  called  clauses. 

A  phrase  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put  together,  making 
sometimes  a  part  of  a  sentence,  and  sometimes  a  whole  sen- 
tence. 

The  principal  parts  of  a  simple  sentence  are  the  subject,  the 
attribute,  and  the  object. 

*  Finite  verbs  are  those  to  which  number  and  person  appertain.  Verbs  in  tha 
infinitive  mood  have  no  respect  to  number  and  perxon 


SYNTAX.  J]9 

The  subject  is  the  tiling  chiefly  spokcMi  of;  the  uUribute  is  tlie 
thing  or  action  afFirnicd  or  deiiitul  ol'  it  ;  and  the  object  is  the 
thing  affected  by  sucii  action. 

The  nominative  case  denotes  the  subject ;  and  usually  goes 
before  the  verb  or  attribute  ;  and  the  word  or  j)hrase  denoting 
the  object,  follows  the  verb  ;  as,  "  A  wise  man  fjovorns  liis  pas- 
sions." Here  a  ivisc  man  is  the  subject  ;  governs,  tiic  attribute 
or  tiling  affirmed  ;  and  his  jxt-ssions,  the  obj'^ct. 

Syntax  principally  consists  of  two  parts,  Concuril  and  Govern- 
ment. Concord  is  the  agreement  which  one  word  has  witii 
another  in  gender,  number,  case,  or  person.  Government  is  that 
power  which  one  part  of  speech  has  over  another,  in  directin^j 
its  mood,  tense,  or  case. 

What  is  Orthography  ?  Et3iTiol()g'y  ?  Syntax  ?  How  many  kiiuls  of 
erammar  are  there  '/  \Vlial  are  tlie}'  !  What  is  unixersal  grainmar  ?  I'ar- 
ticular  grammar  ?  Wliat  is  hmguage  '.'  Wliat  is  an  arlicnlate  soumi  .'  What 
are  letters  ?  What  are  the  leUers  of  the  Englisli  lanj^uago  called  ?  What 
does  each  constitute  .'  How  aie  letters  divided  .'  Whal  is  a  vowel  .'  Which 
are  they  ?  How  many  do  they  make  ?  Wlieii  are  w  ;nid  tj  consonanls  ? 
when  vowels  ?  Wliat  is  a  consonant  ?  Give  an  e.vaniple.  Which  letters  are 
consonants  ?  How  are  the  consonants  divided  '.'  What  is  a  mule  ?  Which 
are  they  ?  What  is  a  semi-vowel  ?  Which  are  they  ?  Whicli  of  the  semi- 
vowels are  called  liquids,  and  why  ?  What  is  a  diphthong  ?  (iive  an  exam- 
ple. What  is  a  triphthong?  Give  an  example.  What  is  a  proper  diphUioiig? 
Give  an-  example.  What  is  an  improper  diphthong  ?  tiive  an  example. 
What  is  a  syllable  ?  monosyllable  '!  dissyllal>le  '.'  trisyllal)le  ?  polysyllable  ? 
Whal  are  words  ?  Of  how  many  sorts  are  they  ?  What  is  a  prlmiti\e  word  ? 
Give  an  example.  What  is  a  derivative  word  ?  Give  an  oxaniple.  Wlia< 
does  an  elementary  soiuid  produce  ?  What  do  syllables  produce  .'  Words  ? 
Sentences  ?  What  is  a  sentence  ?  How  are  sentences  divided  1  What  is  a 
simple  sentence  ?  Compomid  sentence  1  Give  an  example  of  each.  How 
are  the  members  of  sentences  divided  ?  Give  an  example.  What  is  a  phrase? 
Whal  are  the  principal  parts  of  a  simple  sentence  ?  What  is  the  subject  ?  the 
attribute  ?  the  object  ?  Whal  does  ihe  nominative  case  denote  ?  and  where 
IS  it  usually  placed  in  a  sentence  ?  Gi\e  an  example.  Of  how  many  parts 
does  Syntax  consist  ?     What  are  they  ?     What  is  concord  l     Government  7 

The  right  construction  of  sentences  may  perhaps 
be  best  learned  by  correcting  examples  of  wrong  con- 
struction. Exercises  in  false  syntax  for  the  pupM,  as- 
sisted by  rules  and  notes  to  parse  and  correct,  will 
therefore  now  be  given. 

The  following  contain  all  the  notes  and  observations 
in  Murray's  large  Grammar,  together  with  all  liis  ex- 
ercises in  false  syntax. 

RULE    ITII. 

Correspondhig  witli  Murray's  Gr;unmar, 
RULK  I. 

A  verb  must  ascrce  ivith  its  nominative  case  in  number 
and  2)crson. 


The 
aifies 


le  following  are  a  few  instances  of  the  violation  of  tliis  rule  :  "  What  s\g- 
good  opinions,  when  our  practice  is  bad  V  "  whal  sigmjy."    "  There^» 


120 


ENGLISH  GRAALMAR. 


two  or  three  of  us,  who  have  seen  the  work  ;"  "  there  are."  "  We  may  sup- 
pose there  was  more  impostors  than  one  ;"  "  there  ivere  more."  "  I  have  con- 
sidered what  have  been  said  on  both  sides  in  this  controversy;"  "  what /la* 
been  said."  "  If  thou  would  be  healliiy,  live  temperately  ;"  "  if  thou  wouldst." 
"  Thou  sees  how  little  has  been  done  ;"  "  thou  seest."  "  Though  thou  Ccumo\ 
do  much  for  the  cause,  thou  may  and  should  do  something  ;"  "  canst  jwt^ 
mayst,  mid  shouldst."  "  Full  many  a  flower  are  bom  to  blush  unseen ;"  "  is 
bom."  "  A  conformity  of  inclinations  and  qualities  prepare  us  for  friend- 
ship ;"  "  prepares  us."  "  A  variety  of  blessings  have  been  conferred  upon 
us;"  "  has  hcen."  '•  In  piety  and  virtue  consist  the  happiness  of  mafl  ;"  "con- 
sists." "  To  these  precepts  are  subjoined  a  copious  selection  of  rules  aud 
maxims;"  "  js  subjoined." 

"  If  thou  would  be  healthy,  live  temperately."  Wliich  word  is  wrong  in 
this  e.vample  ?  In  what  particular,  wrong  1  Why  ?  What  is  the  Rule  for 
it  ?  How,  then,  would  you  correct  the  example  ? — "  There  was  more  equivo- 
cators."  Which  word  is  wrong  here  ?  What  correction  should  be  made  t 
Why  ? 

[nr  T!te  pupil  is  fost  to  answer  the  q^iestions  on  each  Rule  or  Note,  then  to 
correct  and  parse  the  subsequent  exercises.  It  is  suggested  to  the  teacher,  tluU 
tlie  pupils  should  direct  their  attention  Jirst  to  the  liules  and  exercises  vnder 
them,  exclusively ,  omilting  the  Notes,  SfC,  for  a  review,  icheii  all  may  be  taken 
in  course. 


"  Disappointments  sinJis  the  heart 
of  man  ;  but  the  renewal  of 
hope  give  consolation." 

"  The  smiles  that  (1.)  encourage 
severity  of  judgment  hides 
malice  and  insincerity." 

"  He  dare  not  act  (2.)  contrary  (3.) 
to  his  instructions." 

•*  Fifty  pounds  of  wheat  cojitains 
forty  pounds  of  flour." 

"  The  mechanism  of  clocks  and 
watches  were  totally  un- 
known (4.)  a  few  centuries 
ago."  (5.) 

*'  The  number  of  inhabitants  in 
Great  liritain  and  Ireland,  do 
not  e.xccod  sixteen  millions." 

"  Nothing  ((J.)  but  vain  and  fool- 
ish pursuits  (7.)  delight  some 
persons." 

"  A  variety  of  pleasing  objects 
charm  the  eye." 

"  So  (8.)  much  {[).)  both  (10.)  of 
ability  and  merit  (11.)  are  sel- 
dom (12.)  found." 

"  In  the  conduct  of  Parmenio  a 
mi.\ture  of  wisdom  and  folly 
(11.)  were  very  (H.)  conspicu- 
ous." 

"  He   is  an  author  (13.)   of  more 


credit  than  Plutarch,  (14.)  or 
any  other  (15.)  that  (11.)  write 
lives  too  (12.)  hastily." 

"  The  inquisitive  (16.)  and  cu- 
rious (11.)  is  generally  talka- 
tive." (17.) 

"  Great  pains  has  been  taken  to 
reconcile  the  parties." 

"  The  sincere  (16.)  ia  always  es- 
teemed." 

"  Has  the  goods  been  sold  to  ad 
vantage  ?  and  did  thou  em 
brace  the  proper  season  ?" 

"  There  is  many  occasions  (6.)  in 
life,  in  which  silence  and 
simplicity  (11.)  is  true  wis- 
dom." 

"The  generous  (16.)  never  re- 
counts minutely  the  actions 
they  have  done  ;  nor  the  pru- 
dent, (7.)  those  (15.)  they  will 
do." 

"  He  need  not  proceed  (2.)  in  such 
haste." 

'•'  The  business  that  (1.)  related  to 
ecclesiastical  meetings,  mat- 
ters (11.)  and  persons,  (11.) 
were  to  be  ordered  accord- 
ing (18.)  to  the  king's  direc- 
tion." 


(1.1  Sec  650.  (9.)  Ajiply  Itiik-  XU.  See  480.  (3.)  Adjective.  (4.)  Riilo 
Xni.  (5.)  J}  fttc  centuries  ago—iui  ailvprhiul  phrase,  589  ;  ov  apply  Note  XVIII., 
648,  toce7itMric.s-,'andRulclX.  tort^-o.  (G.)  Rule  VI.  (7.)RuleXI.  (8.)239. 
(9.)  673.         (10.)  661  (11.)  Uulo  XI.         (12.)  Adverb.         (13.)  Rule  XV.  613. 

(14.)  "Plutarcli  is."         (I.'5.)  Note  I.  40.'i,and  Rule  XI.         (16.)  378.         (17.)  Rule 
IV.         (18.)  247. 


SYNTAX. 


191 


"  In  him  were  lini>i)ily  blended 
true  dignity  with  softness  of 
manners." 

"  The  support  of  so  (1 .)  many  (2.) 
of  his  relations,  were  a  heavy 
ta.x  (3.)  upon  his  indiuUry  ; 
but  thou  knows  he  paid  it 
cheerfully." 

"  What  (4.)  avails  the  best  senti- 
ments (5.)  if  persons  do  not 
live  suitably  to  them?" 

"  Not  one  (tJ.)  of  them  whom  thou 
sees  clothed  (7.)  in  purple, 
are  completely  happy." 

"  And  the  fame  of  this  person, 
and  of  his  wonderful  actions, 
were  diffused  (8.)  throughout 
the  country." 

"  The  variety  of  the  productions 
of  genius,  like  (9.)  that  (JO.) 
of  the  operations  of  nature, 
are  without  limit." 

"  In  vain  (11.)  our  flocks  and  fields 
increase  our  store, 


When  our  abundance  makes  us 
wish  (J2.)  for  more." 

"  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor 
as(l;?.)  sincerely  as  (14.)  thou 
loves  thyself." 

"  Has  thou  no  better  reason  for 
censuring  (15.)  thy  friend  and 
companion .''"  (16.) 

"  Thou,  who  art  the  Autlior  (17.) 
and  Bestower  (IG.)  of  life,  can 
doubtless  restore  it  also  ;  but 
whether  thou  will  please  to 
restore  it,  or  not,  that  thou 
only  knows." 

"  O  thou  my  voice  (18.)  inspire, 

\Vlio  touched  (19.)  Isaiah's  hal 
lowed  lips  with  fire." 

"  Accept  (20.)  these  grateful  tears 
for  thee  they  flow  ; 

For  thee,  that  ever  felt  (21.)  anofh 
cr's  wo." 

"  Just  to  thy  word,  in  every 
thought  sincere  ; 

Who  knew  (22.)  no  wish  but  wnat 
the  world  might  hear." 

1.  The  infinitive  mood,  or  part  of  a  .sentence,  is  sometimes  put  as  the  nom- 
inative case  to  the  verl)  ;  as,  "  To  see  the  sim  is  pleasant ;"  "  'J'o  be  good  is 
to  be  happy  ;"  "  A  desire  to  e.^ccl  others  in  learniiicr  and  virtue  is  commenda- 
ble ;"  "  That  warm  climates  sliould  accelerate  the  growth  of  the  human  bod}', 
and  siiorteu  its  duration,  is  very  reasonable  to  believe  ;''  "  To  be  temperate 
in  eatmg  and  drinking;,  to  use  exercise  in  open  air,  and  to  jireserve  the  mind 
free  from  tumultuous  emotions,  are  the  best  preservatives  of  health." 

"  To  see  the  sun  are  pleasant."  Which  word  is  wron^f  in  this  example  ? 
In  what  particular,  wrong  1  What  is  pleasant  ?  What,  then,  is  the  nomina- 
tive case  to  is  ?  Is  there  one  thing,  or  more  than  one,  here  spoken  of,  as  being 
pleasant  ?  Why,  then,  should  we  use  is  in  preference  to  are  ?  What  is  the 
Rule  for  is  1  (23.)     Rule  for  "  To  see,"  or  ••  To  see  the  smi"  ?  (24.) 

[Cx*  ^'y^len  examples  are  referred  to  vithotit  being  quoted,  the  teacher  vuni 
read  them  to  the  pupil. 

"  To  be  temperate  in  eating,"  &c.  How  many  things  are  here  spoken  of 
as  being  the  best  preservatives  ?  Should  we,  then,  use  the  singular  or  pturai 
verb  ?     Rule  for  it  ?  (25.) 

I. 
"  To    do    unto   all    men,   as    we     "  From  a  fear  of  the  world's  cen- 


would  that  the}',  in  similar 
circumstances,  should  do  unto 
us,  constitute  the  great  prin- 
ciple of  virtue.'' 


sure,  to  be  ashamed  (24.)  of 
the  practice  of  precepts,  which 
the  heart  approves  and  em- 
braces, mark  a  feeble  and  im- 
perfect character." 


(].)239.         (2.)  378.         (3.)  Rule  XV.  G1.3.         (4.)  Rule  VIII.         (3.)  Rul.>  Vf. 
(ft.)  Note  I.  405,  and  Rule  VI.  (7.)  Rule  XIII.  (3.)  5f0.  (9.)  Rufc  IV. 

(10.)  "  that  i'arie«i/"~Note  I.  405,  and  Rule  X.  Sec  Note  XVII.  647.  (H.)  Ad- 

verbial  phrase.         (12.)  Rule  XII.  555.    See  480.         (VS.)  Adverb.         (14.)  Con- 
jmiction.  (15.)  Participial  noun.  (16.)   Rule  XI.  (17.)  Rule   XV    G13 

(18.)   Role   VIII.  (19.)  "  Who  touched.^t   or  didst   touch."  (20.)  "  Accept 

tAcK"'~iinp.  mood.  (HI.)  "  didst  feel."  (22.)"f»7m  knemest  or  didst  kiwii." 

(33.)  Rule  VII.        (24.)  Note  XIII  626,  or  Note  1,  tfiTjpage.        (25.)  Rolo  XVlII 


11 


122 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


"  The  erroneous  opinions  whicli 
we  form  concerning  (] .)  liaj)- 
[••iness  and  misery  gircs  rise 
to  all  the  mistaken  (2.)  and 
dangerous  passions  that  na- 
liroils  our  lite.  " 

"  To  live  soberly, righteously,  and 
piously,  are  required  of  all 
men." 

"  That  (3.)  it  is  our  duty  to  pro- 
mote the  purity  of  our  minds 
and  bodies,  to  be  just  (4.)  and 
kind  to  our  fellow  creatures, 
and  to  be  pious  and  faithful 
to  Him  that  made  us,  admit 
not  of  any  doubt  in  a  rational 
and  well  (5.)  informed  mind." 

"  To  be  of  a  pure  and  humble 
mind,  to  exercise  benevolence 
tov.'ards  others,  to  cultivate 
piety  towards  God,  is  the 
sure  means  (G.)  of  becoming 
peaceful  and  liappy." 

"  It  is  an  im])'irtant  truth,  that 
religion,  vital  religion,  the 
reliffion  of  tlie  heart,  are  the 


most  powerful  auxiliaries  ol 

reason,  in  waging  war  with 
ti»e  passions,  and  promoting 
that  sweet  composure  which 
constitute  the  peace  of  God." 

The  possession  of  our  senses 
entire,  of  our  limbs  iininjured, 
of  a  sotmd  understanding,  ot 
friends  and  companions,  are 
often  overlooked  ;  though  it 
v.'ould  be  the  ultimate  wish 
((',.)  of  niany,  who,  as  far  as 
we  can  judge,  deserves  it  as 
uuich  as  ourselves." 

All  (7.)  that  make  a  figure  on 
the  great  theatre  of  the  vi'orld, 
the  employments  of  the  busy, 
the  enterprises  of  the  anibi- 
tious.  and  the  exploits  of  the 
warlike  ;  the  virtues  which 
forms  the  happiness,  and  the 
crimes  which  occasions  the 
niisery  of  mankind ;  origi- 
nates in  that  silent  and  secret 
recess  of  thought,  which  are 
hidden  from  every  human 
eye." 

2.  Every  verl>,  e.xoept  in  the  infinitive  mood,  or  the  participle,  ought  to  have 
a  nominative  c;ise,  either  exjircssed  or  implied  ;  as,  ■''  AwEike ;  arise  ;"  that  is, 
"  Aucike  ye  ;  arise  ye." 

We  shall  here  add  some  examples  of  innccurac}',  in  the  use  of  the  verb 
wiiliout  its  uominalive  case.  ■'  As  it  hath  pleased  him  of  his  goodness  to  give 
yon  safe  deliverance,  and  hath  preserved  you  in  the  jjreat  danger,"  &c.  The 
verb  Itaih  pj-esen-ed  has  here  no  nominative  case,  for  it  cainiol  he  properly  sup- 
plied h}-  the  preceding  word,  him,  wlilch  is  in  the  ohjcctive  case.  It  ought  to 
lie,  '•  and  as  he  hnth  preserved  you;"  or  rather,  '•'  and  to  prese/Te  vnu."  "  If 
tii^'  calm  in  wliich  lie  was  liorn,  ar.d  lasted  so  Ions',  had  continued  ;"  "  and 
irhirh  lasted,"  &p.  "  These  we  liavc  extracted  from  an  hisiorian  of  undouljted 
credit,  and  are  the  same  that  were  practised,"  <fcc. ;  "  and  fhcy  are  the  same." 
•'  .\  man  whose  inchiiations  lei.1  him  to  he  corrupt,  and  had  great  abilities  to 
inaiKige  tiie  busines.s  ;"  "  and  vho  had,"  &c.  "  A  cloud  gathering  in  the 
north  ;  which  we  ha\'e  helped  to  raise,  and  ma_y  quiikh'  break  m  a  storm  upon 
our  heads  ;"  "  and  ichich  may  t|uickly." 

"  As  it  hath  pleased,"  &:c.  What  corree tiou  shouk!  \>e  made  in  this  exam- 
ple ?     Why  ?     Jvecile  the  Note. 


"  If  the  privileges  to  which  he 
has  an  undoubted  right,  and 
he  has  long  enjfiyed.  should 
now  he  wrested  from  him, (8.) 
would  be  flagrant  injustice." 

"  These  curiosities  we  have  im- 
ported from  China,  and  are 


siniihi-r  to  these   which  were 

some  time  ago  brought  from 

Africa." 
"  Will  martial  flames  forever  fire 

thy  mind, 
And    never,    never    (9.)     be    to 

heaven  resigned  .-•" 


^1.)  Preposition.         (2.)  Rule  XIII.         (3.1  Conjunction.         (4.)  "  just  perso7i5.' 
Eule  IV.  (5.)  Adverb.  (6.)  Rule'  XV.'  (7  )  Note  I.  405,  Rule  VI. 

(8.)  "  if  would."  (9.)  "  And  wilt  thou  never  be  ?" 


SYNTAX.  ri'J 

3.  Every  iiotniunlive  ca-e,  e.xcopi  llio  case  ahsoliilo,  ;ukI  ^^!len  an  adilress 
is  made  to  a  jiersoii,  should  bcloii"'  to  some  verli,  oitlior  expressed  or  ini))riod  ; 
as,  "  VVlio  wrote  tliis  hook  ?"  "  James  ;''  that  is,  •'  James  wrote  it."  "  To 
wliom  thus  Adain,"  that  is,  "spoke." 

<  ^iie  or  two  iiislaiiees  ot'  the  iinproper  use  of  the  nominative  case,  without 
any  verb,  e.xpresseil  or  iiiiphed,  to  answer  it,  may  be  sutricient  to  illustrate  tin* 
usefriliiess  ol'tlie  preceding'  observations. 

"  Wliicli  rule,  it'  it  had  been  observed,  a  neighboring'  prince  wouKl  have 
wanted  a  great  deal  ol'  that  ince)ise  wliich  hath  been  offered  up  to  him."  'J"he 
pronoun  il  is  here  llie  nominative  ease  to  the  verb  observed  ;  and  ivhicli  rule  is 
Icll  by  itsell',  a  nomjuative  ease  without  any  verii  following  it.  Tliis  form  of 
exjjression,  thougii  improper,  is  very  common.  It  ouglit  to  be,  "  1/  tliU  rule 
had  been  obser\ed,"  &e.  •'  Man,  though  he  lias  gretil  variety  of  thoughts,  and 
such  from  which  others  as  well  as  himself  might  receive  [)rofit  and  delight,  jet 
they  are  all  within  his  own  breast."  In  this  sentence,  the  nominative  num 
stands  aioiie,  and  ur.conneeled  with  any  \erb,  either  exjjressed  or  implied.  It 
sliould  be,  "  lliongh  man  lias  great  variet}',"  &,c. 

"  V/hleh  rule,  if  il,"  ifcc.  What  is  the  nominative  case  io  ohse/i'ed?  Has 
the  noun  itilc  ■Any  verb  followhig  it,  to  which  it  may  be  the  nominative  case  ? 
Is  this  form  of  expression  much  used  ?  Is  it  not  proper  ?  What  correction 
sliould  be  made  ?     Why  1     Recite  the  Note. 

3. 
"  (1.)    Two    subritantives,     irken     "  Virtue,  however  it  may  be  neg- 
theij  come   tojrethor,  and    do  lected  for  a  time,  men  are  so 

not  signify   the   yaiiie   tiling,  constituted    as    ultimately  to 

the  former  (2.)  must  be  in  tlie  acknowledge      and      respect 

genitive  case."  genuine  merit." 

4.  When  a  verb  comes  between  two  nouns,  either  of  which  may  be  under- 
stood as  the  subject  of  the  affirmation,  il  may  agree  with  either  of  them  :  but 
some  regard  must  be  had  to  that  whieli  '\s  more  naturally  tlie  subject  of  it,  as 
also  to  that  which  stands  next  to  the  verb ;  as,  "  His  meat  wax  locusts  and  wild 
honey  ;"  "  A  great  cause  of  the  low  state  of  industry  were  the  restraints  put 
upon  it  ;"  '•'  The  wages  of  sin  is  death." 

"  The  wages  of  sin  is  death,"  or,  "  Death  is  tiie  wages  of  sin."  What  is 
the  nominative  case  to  is  ?  Is  this  nominative,  in  the  first  example,  before  or 
after  w  .''  What  is  the  rule  for  wvAtj-es  .'  (3.)  Kccile  the  Note.  What  do  you 
mean  by  the  suhject  of  the  itjj'iruiation  ?  (4.) 

4. 
*'  The  crown  of  virtue    is  peace     "  His  ciiief    occupation   and   en 
and  honor."  joyment  were  controversy." 

a.  When  the  nominative  case  has  no  personal  tense  of  a  verb,  but  is  put 
before  a  participle,  iiifk'pcii<'ently  on  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  it  is  called  the 
case  absolute  ;  a?,  "  Shame  being  lost,  all  virtue  is  lost;"  "  'I'hat  liaviiig  been 
discussed  long  ago,  there  is  no  occasion  to  resume  il." 

As,  in  iho  use  of  the  case  absolute,  the  case  is,  in  English,  always  the  nom 
inative,  the  following  exain[)lc  is  erroneous,  in  making  it  the  objective.  •'  Sol- 
omon was  of  this  nnnd  ;  ami  i  have  no  doubt  he  macle  as  wise  ami  true  [irov- 
erbs,  as  anv  body  has  done  s!1k-<>  ;  1dm.  only  excepted,  who  was  a  much  great- 
er and  wiser  man  than  Solomon."     It  should  be,  "  lie  only  exooptod." 

What  is  the  rule  for  the  case  absolute  ?  (.5.)  "  He  only  excepted."  Which 
word  is  wrong  in  this  example  '.'  In  what  particular,  wrong  1  Vi'hal  correc- 
tion should  be  made  1 


(1.)   "  When   two  substantinns  come  together.''''  (2.)  "  theitfir.-it   of  them." 

(3.)  Rule  XV.  613.  (4.)  The  nominative  case  (5.)  Rule  X  V[l.  623. 


134  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

5. 
• "  Him  deslroycQ,        All  this  (2.)  will  soon  follow. 


Or  won  to  what  (1.)  may  work    — ■ "  Whose  gray  top 

his  utter  loss,  Shall  tremble,  him  descending." 

I'he  nominative  case  is  commonly  placed  before  the  verb  ;  but  sometimes 
it  is  put  after  the  verb,  if  it  is  a  simple  tense  ;  and  between  the  auxiliary  and 
the  verb  or  participle,  if  a  compound  tense  ;  as, 

1st.  When  a  question  is  asked,  a  command  given,  or  a  wish  expressed  ; 
as,  "  Conlidest  tliou  in  me  ?"  "  Read  thou  !"  "  Mayst  thou  be  nappy  !" 
"  Long  live  the  king  !'' 

2d.  When  a  supposition  is  made  williout  tlie  conjunction  if;  as,  "  Were  it 
not  for  this  ;"  "  Had  I  been  there." 

3d.  When  a  verb  neuter  is  used  ;  as,  "  On  a  sudden  appeared  the  king." 

4lh.  When  the  verb  is  preceded  by  the  adverbs  hei-e,  there,  then,  thence, 
hence,  thus,  &c. ;  as,  "  Here  am  I ;"  "  There  was  he  slain  j"  "  Then  cometh 
the  end;"  "  Thence  ariseth  his  grief;"  "  Hence  proceeds  his  anger  ;"  "  Thus 
was  the  eiffair  settled." 

6lh.  When  a  sentence  depends  on  neither  or  nor,  so  as  to  be  coupled  with 
another  sentence  ;  as,  "  Ye  shadl  not  eat  of  it,  neither  shall  ye  touch  it,  lest  ye 
die." 

Some  grammarians  assert,  the  phrases  as  folloics,  as  appears,  form  what 
are  called  impersonal  verbs  ;  and  should,  therefore,  be  confined  to  the  singular 
number  ;  as,  "  The  arginncnts  advanced  were  nearly  as  follows  ;"  "  The 
positions  were  as  appeal's  incontrovertible  ;"  that  is,  "  as  it  follows,"  "  as  it 
appears."  If  we  give  (say  they)  the  sentence  a  different  turn,  and,  instead  ot 
as,  say  such  as,  the  verb  is  no  longer  termed  impersonal ;  but  properly  agrees 
with  its  nominative,  in  the  plural  number  ;  as,  "  The  arguments  advanced 
were  nearly  such  as  follow  ;"  "  Tlie  positions  were  such  as  appear  incontro- 
vertible."* 

They  who  doubt  the  accuracy  of  Home  Tooke's  statement,  "  That  a«,  how- 
ever and  whenever  used  in  English,  means  the  same  as  it,  or  that,  or  which ;" 
and  who  are  not  satisfied  whether  the  verbs,  in  the  sentence  first  mentioned, 
should  be  in  the  singular  or  the  plural  number,  may  vary  the  form  of  expres- 
sion. Thus,  the  sense  of  the  preceding  sentences  may  be  conveyed  in  the  fol- 
ic -  "  


arguments 

that  the  positions  were  incontrovertible  ;"  "  That  the  positions  were  incontro- 
vertible is  apparent  ;"  "  The  positions  were  incontrovertible  is  apparent ;" 
"  The  positions  were  apparently  incontrovertible." 

F  Where  is  the  nominative  case  usually  placed  ?  Mention  a  few  instances  in 
which  tlie  nominative  follows  the  verb.  What  do  some  grammarians  say  of 
tlie  phrases  as  follows,  as  appears  ?  What  is  Dr.  Campbell's  opinion  con 
cerning  them  ? 

(1.)"  that  which."  137.  (2.)  Note  I.  405. 

*  These  grammarians  are  supported  liy  general  usage,  and  by  the  authority  of  at 
eminent  critic  on  language  and  composition.  "  When  a  verb  is  used  impersonally,' 
Bays  Dr.  Campbell,  in  his  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  "it  ought  undoubtedly  to  be  ii 
the  singular  number,  whether  the  neuter  pronoun  be  e-vprcssed  or  understood.' 
For  this  reason,  analogy  and  usage  favor  this  mode  of  expression  ;  "  The  condition! 
of  the  agreement  were  as  folloms,"  and  not  "  as  follow."  A  few  late  writers  havi 
inconsiderately  adopted  this  last  form,  through  a  mistake  of  the  construction.  Foi 
the  same  reason,  we  ought  to  say,  "  I  shall  consider  his  censures  so  far  only  as  con 
corns  my  friend's  conduct,"  and  not  "  so  far  as  concern." 


SYNTAX.  125 

RUZ.Z:  xiriiz. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Griiiniuur, 
RULE  H. 

Two  or  more  nouns  or  pronouns  of  the  singular  number^ 
connected  together  by  and,  either  expressed  or  under- 
stood, must  have  verbs,  nouns  and  pronouns  agreeing 
ivith  them  in  the  plural  number. 

This  rule  is  often  violated  ;  some  instances  of  vvliicli  arc  annexed.  "  And 
so  was  also  James  and  .Tolui,  llie  sons  of'Zehedee,  wlio  were  partjiers  witli  Si- 
mon ;"  "  and  so  %pere  also."  "  All  joy,  tranquillity  ajid  peace,  even  for  ever 
cind  ever,  dolli  dwell  ;"  "dwell  lor  ever."  ''  J5y  whose  power  all  tjood  and 
evil  is  distributed;"  "are  distrihuled."  ''Tlieir  love,  and  their  hatred,  and 
their  envy,  is  now  perished  ;"  "  are  perished.'"  "  'J'he  thoiigjlilless  and  intem- 
perate enjoyment  of  pleasure,  the  criminal  abuse  of  it,  and  the  forgetfulness  of 
our  being  accountable  creatures,  obliterates  every  serious  thouglit  of  the  proper 
business  of  life,  and  ctTaces  the  sense  of  rclin;iou  and  of  (ilod  ;"  it  ought  to  be, 
obliterate"  and  "efface." 

•  All  joy,  tranquillity,  iScc,  doth  dwell."  Which  uord  is  v>rona;  in  Ihis  ex- 
ample ?  In  what  particular,  wrong  ?  Vi'hat  curretlion,  liicn.  sliou!d  be  made  ? 
Why  ?     Recite  the  Kiilc. 

"  Idleness  and   ignorance    is  the  ig-noran<;e     under    cosily    at- 

jmrciit  of  many  vices."  tire." 

"  Wisdom,      virtue,      liapnine.'is,  "  The  planetary   system,   bound- 

dwclls  with  the  golden    me-  less  space,  and   the  immense 

diocrity."  ocean,  af]ccts  ilie   mind  with 

^^  In   unity  consists   the    welfare  sensations  of  astonishment." 

and    security    of    every    so-  '-Humility    and    love,    whatever 

cietj'."  ('A.)  obscurities  may    involve 

"  Time    and    tide    waits    for    no  religions    tenets,    constitutes 

man."  tiie  essence  of  true  relio'ion." 

"  His  politeness  and  g-ood  disposi-  ••  Religion   and    virtiie,   our    best 

tion  7Pas,  on  failure  oi'  their  support  (1.)  and  liighest  hon- 

effect,  entirely  chaiiged."  or,  confers  on  the  niintl  prin- 

"  Patience  and  diligence,  liv.e  (I.)  ciplesoi'iu.'ble  independence." 

faith,     (2.)     removes     monn-  '•  What  (5.)  sio-tiiKes  the  counsel 

tains."  and  c.ire  of  preceptors,  when 

*  Humility  and  knowledge,  with  youth  think  they  have  no  (6.) 

poor  apparel,  excels  pride  and  need  of  assistance  .'" 

1.  When  the  nouns  are  nearly  related,  or  scarcely  distins^uishahle  in  sense, 
and  sometimes  even  when  they  are  very  diflerent,  some  authors  have  thought 
it  allowable  to  put  the  verbs,  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  singular  number  ;  as, 
'•  Tranouillity  and  peace  dwells  there  ;"  "Ignorance  and  negligcuce  has  pro- 
duced tlie  effect  ;"  "  The  discomfiture  and  slaughter  was  very  great."  But  it 
is  evidently  contrary  to  the  first  principles  of  grammar,  to  cronsider  two  dis- 
tinct ideas  as  one,  however  nice  may  be  their  shades  of  difference  ;  and  if  . 
there  be  no  difference,  one  of  them  must  be  s\iperiluous,  and  ought  to  be  re- 
jected. 

To  support  the  above  construction,  it  is  said,  that  the  verb  may  be  under- 
stooil  as  ap  'ilied  to  each  of  the  preceding  terms  ;  as  in  the  Ibllowing  example  I 
"  Sand,  an  salt,  and  a  mass  of  iron,  is  easier  to  bear  than  a  man  without  un- 
derstanding.'    But  besides  the  confusion,  and  the  latitude  of  application,  which 

(1.)  Adverb.  (2.)  Rule  X.  See  Note  XVII.  647.  (3.)  Note  I.  405. 

(4.)  Rule  XV.  (5.)  Rule  VIII,  ^6,)  839 

11* 


lae  EiNGLISH  GRAAIMAR. 

such  a  construction  would  iutfoduco,  it  appears  to  be  more  proper  and  ana- 
logical, in  cases  where  the  verb  is  intended  to  be  applied  to  any  one  of  the 
terms,  to  make  use  of  the  disjunctive  conjunction,  which  grammaticcJly  refers 
the  verb  to  one  or  other  of  llie  pre,cediug  terms,  in  a  separate  view.  To  pre- 
serve the  distinctive  uses  of  the  copulative  and  disjunctive  conjunctions,  would 
render  the  rules  precise,  consistent  and  intelligible.  Dr.  Blair  very  justly  ob- 
serves, that  '■  two  or  more  substjuativcs,  joined  by  a  copulative,  must  aluays 
require  liic  verb  or  pronoun  to  which  they  refer,  to  be  placed  in  the  plural 
number."' 

"  Tranquillity  and  peace  dwells  there."  What  dwells  ?  Is  it  not,  then,  a 
violatiun  of  Rule  XVIII.  to  use  (/ue//s  in  the  singular  number  ?  When  do 
some  writers  think  it  allowable  to  put  the  verbs,  nouiiB  and  pronouns  in  the 
singular  number  l  Is  this  usage  grammatical  ?  In  what  does  the  incoirect- 
»ess  consist  ?  If  there  be  no  diflerence  in  the  meaning  of  terms,  are  both 
necessary  1  What  ought  to  be  done  \vith  the  superfluous  one  1  How  dp 
some  attempt  to  support  the  above  construction  ?  How  would  they  read,  on 
this  principle,  the  example  bcgimhng  with,  "  Sand,  and  salt,  and  a  mass  of 
iron,  is  easier,"  &c.  ?  (1.)  In  examples  like  the  last,  what  conjunction  can  we 
substitute  in  the  place  of  ajid,  which  will  belter  express  the  sense  ?  What 
dors  Dr.  Blair  say  on  this  subject  ? 

1. 

"  r»Iuch    docs    human    pride    and  "  Pride  and  self-sufBciency  stifles 

Belf-complacency  require  cor-  eentiments  of  dependence  on 

rection."  our  Creator ;    levity  and  at- 

'•  Luxurious     living,    and     high  tachment  to  worldly  pleasures 

pleasures,    begets   a    languor  destroys  the  sense  of  gratitude 

and  satiety  that  destroys  all  to  liim." 
enjoyment." 

2.  In  many  complex  sentences,  it  is  difficult  for  learners  to  determine, 
whether  one  or  more  of  the  clauses  are  to  be  considered  as  the  nomhiatjve 
case;  and,  consequently,  whether  the  verb  should  be  in  the  singular  or  the 
plural  number.  We  shall,  therefore,  set  down  a  number  of  variea  examples 
tif  lliis  nature,  wliich  may  serve  as  some  government  to  the  scholar  with  re- 
spect to  sentences  of  a  similar  construction.  ''  Prosperity-,  with  humility,  re7i- 
deis  lis  possessor  truly  amiable."  "  The  ship,  wiili  all  her  furniture,  was  de- 
stroyed." "  Not  only  his  estate,  his  reputation  too  lias  sufl'ered  by  his  miscon- 
duct." "  The  general,  also,  in  conjunction  with  the  officers,  has  applied  for 
redress."  "  He  cpjinot  be  justified  ;  for  it  is  true,  that  the  prince,  as  well  as 
the  people,  iias  blameworthy."  "  The  king,  with  his  life-guaid,  /tas  just  pass- 
ed iliroiigh  the  village."  "la  the  mutual  influence  of  body  and  soul,  there  is 
a  wisdom,  a  wonderlul  wisdom,  which  «e  cajiiiot  fathom."  "  Virtue,  honor, 
iia}-,  even  self-interest,  co/M-pVe  to  recommend  the  measure."  "Patriotism, 
morality,  every  public  and  private  consideration,  demand  our  submission  to 
just  and  lawfid  government."  "  Nothing  delights  me  so  much  as  the  works 
of  nature." 

In  su))port  of  such  forms  of  expression  as  the  following,  we  sec  the  autliorily 
of  Hume,  Priestley,  and  other  writers  ;  and  we  amies  them  for  the  reader's  con- 
sideration :  "  A  long  course  of  time,  with  a  variety  of  accidents  and  circum- 
slances.  are  requisite  to  prothice  those  revolutions."  "  The  king,  with  tho 
lords  and  conmions, ybrwi  an  excellent  frame  of  government."  "  The  side  A, 
with  the  sides  B  and  C,  compose  the  triangle."  "  The  fire  communicatied  it- 
self to  the  bed,  which,  with  the  furniture  of  the  room,  and  a  valuable  library, 
tvere  all  entircl}-  consumed."  It  is,  however,  proper  to  observe,  that  these 
modes  of  expression  do  not  appear  to  be  warranted  by  the  just  principles  of 
construction.  The  words,  "  A  long  course  of  time,"  "  The  king."  "  The  side 
A,"  cuid  "which,"  are  the  true  nominatives  to  the  respective  verbs.  In  the 
last  example,  the  word  all  should  be  expunged.  As  the  prep>osit:cu  with  gov- 
erHS  the  oijecliue  case  in  English,  ajid,  if  translated  into  Latin,  would  govern 

(L)  "  Sand  is  easier,  and  salt  is  esBier,  and  a  mass  of  iron  is  easier,"  &o. 


SYNTAX.  127 

the  ablative  case,  it  is  manifest,  lliat  the  clauses  follo^ving  with,  m  the  precedmg 
sentences,  cannot  fonn  any  part  of  the  nominative  case.  They  cannot  be  at 
the  same  time  in  llie  objective  and  the  nominative  cases.  The  following  sen- 
tence appears  to  be  unexceptionable,  and  may  serve  to  explain  the  others  i 
" The  lords  and  commons  are  essential  branches  of  the  British  constitution) 
the  king,  with  ihem,  forms  an  excellent  frame  of  government."* 

"  The  side  A,  with  the  sides  B  and  C,  compose  the  triangle."  In  this  sen- 
tence, what  is  the  nominative  case  to  compose  I  Should  tne  verb,  then,  be 
singular  or  plural  ?  What  difficulty  is  mentioned  in  tlie  beginning  of  this 
Note  ? 

8. 

"  Good  order  in  otir  affairs,  not  a  very  limited  influeitce,  and 

mean  savings,  produce  great  are  often  despised." 

profits."  "  That    superficial    scholar    and 

"  The  following  treatise,  together  critic,   like    some    renowned 

with  those  that  accompany  it,  critics  of  our  own,  have  (2.) 

were  written  many  years  ago,  furnished  most  decisive  proofs 

for  my  own  private  satisi'ac-  that  they  (3.)  knew  not  the 

tion."  characters  of  the  Hebrew  lan- 

"  That  great  senator,  in  concert  guage." 

with   several   other   eminent  "  The  buildings  of  the  institution 

persons,  were  the   projectors  Iiave  been  enlarged ;  the  ex- 

(1.)  of  the  revolution."  pense    of  which,  added    (4.) 

"  The  religion  of  these  people,  as  to  the  increased  price  of  pro- 
well  as  their  customs  and  visions,  render  it  necessary 
manners,  icerc  strangely  mis-  to  advance  tlie  terms  of  ad- 
represented."  mission." 

"  Virtue,  joined  to  knowledge  and  "  One,  added  to  nineteen,  make 

wealth,    confer    great    influ-  twenty." 

ence  and  respectability.    But  "  What  (5.)  black  despair,  what 

knowledge,  with  wealth  unit-  horror,  fills  his  mind  !" 
ed,  if  virtue  is  wanting,  have 

3.  If  the  singular  nouns  and  pronouns,  which  are  joined  together  by  a  cop- 
ulative conjunction,  be  of  several  persons,  in  making  the  plural  pronouns  agree 
v\ith  them  in  person,  the  second  person  takes  place  of  the  third,  and  the  first  of 
both  ;  as,  "  James,  and  thou,  and  I,  are  attached  to  our  comitry  ;"  "  Thou 
and  he  shared  it  between  ijou." 

"  James,  and  thou,  and  I,  am  attached  to  our  couatr}-."  What  is  wrong  in 
this  example  ?  In  what  particular,  wrong  ?  What  correction  should  be 
made  ?  Why  ?  "  Thou  and  he  shared  it  between  hiin."  Will  you  correct 
this  example  1     Why  use  ?/ow  instead  oi  him  1     Will  you  repeal  the  Note  ? 

3. 

'  Thou,  and   the   gardener,   and     "  My  sister  and  I,  as  well  as  my 
the    huntsman,    must    share  brother,  are    daily  employed 

the   blame    of    this   business  in   their    respective    oceupa- 

amongst  themy  tions." 

*  Though  the  construction  will  not  admit  of  a  plural  verb,  the  sentence  would 
certainly  stand  better  thus  :  "  The  king,  the  lords,  and  the  commons,  form  an 
e.xcellent  constitnlion." 

(1 .)  Rule  XV.  613.  (2.)  632.  Exception  1  (3.)  "  Ae  knew.'" 

(4.)  Kule  XIII.  557.  (5.)  434. 


128  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

RUX.I:    KTLTTl. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  HI. 

The  conjunction  disjunctive  has  an  effect  contrary 
to  that  of  the  conjunction  copulative  ;  for  as  the 
verb,  noun,  or  pro  norm,  is  referred  to  the  preceding 
terms  taken  separately,  it  must  be  in  the  singular 
number;  as,  "Ignorance  or  negligence  has  caused 
this  mistake  ;"  "  John,  James,  or  Joseph,  intends 
to  accompany  me  ;"•  ''•  There  is,  in  many  minds, 
neither  knowledge  nor  understanding." 

The  following  sentences  are  variations  from  this  rule  :  '•'  A  nu<n  mr\y  see 
a  metaphor  or  an  alleg'ory  in  a  picture,  as  well  as  read  them  in  a  ilescriptioii:"' 
"  rend  it."  "  Neither  character  nor  dialogue  were  yet  understood;"  "teas 
yet."  "  It  must  indeed  be  confessed,  that  a  lampoosi  or  a  satire  do  not  carry 
lu  theni  robbery  or  murder ;''  •'  does  not  carry  in  if."  "  Death,  or  some  worse 
misfortune,  soon  divide  them  ;"  it  oiig^ht  to  be,  "  divides." 

"  Neither  character  nor  dialogue  were  yet  understood."  AVhat  is  wrong  in 
this  example  ?  Why  ?  Will  you  correct  it  ?  What  is  the  Rule  for  this  cor- 
rection ? 

"  Man's  happiness  or  misery  are,  '■  When    sickness,    infirmity,   or 

in  a  great  measure,  put  into  reverse  of  fortuiio   affect  us, 

his  own  hands."  the  sincerity  of  friendship  is 

"  Man  is  not  such  a  machine  as  a  jiroved." 

clock  or  a  watch,  which  more  "  Let  (1.)  it  be  remembered,  (2.) 

merely  as  theij  are  moved."  that  (.T.)  il  is  not  tlie  uttering, 

*  Despise  no  infirmity  of  mijid  or  or    the    hearing    of    certain 

body,   nor    any    condition    of  words,    that     constitute    the 

life  ;  for  they  are,  perhaps,  to  worship  of  the  Almighty." 

be  your  own  lot."  "  A  tart  reply,  a  proncness  to  re- 

"  Speaking    impatiently    to    ser-  buke,  or  a  captious  and  con- 

vants,   or   anything  that    be-  tradiotious  spirit,  are  capable 

trays  inattention  or  il!-humor,  of    imbittering  (4.)    domestic 

are  certainly  criminal."  life,  (5.)  and  of  setting  iriends 

"  There  are  many  faults  in  spell-  at  variance." 
ing,    which    neitlier    analogy 
nor  pronunciation  justify." 

1.  When  singular  pronouns,  or  a  noun  and  pronoun  of  diflercnl  persons,  are 
disjunctively  connected,  the  verb  must  agree  with  that  person  which  is  placed 
nearest  to  it  ;  as,  "  I  or  thou  art  to  blame  ;"  "  Thou  or  I  am  in  fault  ;"  "  I, 
thou,  or  he,  is  the  autlior  of  it ;"  "  George  or  I  am  the  person."  But  it  would 
be  better  to  say,  "  Either  I  am  to  blame,  or  thou  art,"  &c. 

"  I  or  thou  am  to  blame."  How  should  this  be  altered  .'  What  is  the  Rule 
for  it  ? 

1. 
"  Either  (6.)  thou  or  I  art  greatly     "  I    or  thou    am  the   person   (7.) 
mistaken,  in  our  judgment  on  who  must  undertake  the  busi- 

this  subject."  ness  proposed." 

(I.)  Imperative  mood,  nf^reeing  witli  thou  or  you  uuderBtood,  liy  Rule  VI. 
(2.)  Infinitive,  480.  (3.)  Con  junotion.  (4.)  RiiJe  X,  (5.)  Rula  Xi  v .  56a 

(6.)  659.  (7.)  Rule  XV.  CJa. 


SYiNTAX.  129 

2.  Wiieii  a  disjuucd\c  occurs  between  a  singular  noun,  or  pronoun,  and  a 
plural  one,  the  verb  is  made  lo  agree  with  the  plural  noun  and  pronoult  ;  as, 
"  Neillier  poverty  nor  riches  were  injurious  to  him  ;'•"  "  I  or  they  were  offended 
\>y  it."  l>ut  in  tliis  case,  the  plural  uouji  or  pronoun,  when  it  can  conveniently 
be  done,  should  be  placed  next  to  the  verb. 

"  I  or  they  was  oliended."'  What  is  wrong  in  this  exanij;le  ?  What  is  the 
Rule  for  tjie  coneciion  ? 

2. 

"  Both  (1.)  of  the  schohirs,  or  one  "Whether  one    person    or   more 

of  them  at  least,  was  present  was    concerned  in   the    busi- 

at  the  transaction."  jiess,  does  not  appear." 

"  Some  parts  of  the  sliip  and  cargo  "The  cares  of    this  life,  or   the 

were  recovered  ;   but  neither  deccitfulness    of   riches,    has 

(2.)  the   sailors  nor  the  cap-  choked  the  seeds  of  virtue  in 

tain  was  saved."  many  a  promising  (3.)  mind." 

itroTx:   XVI. 

Ouircsponcling  witli  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  IV. 

A  verb  in  the  plural  will  agree  with  a  collective  noun 
in  the  singular,  when  a  part  only  of  the  individuals 
are  meant;  as,  "  The  council  were  divided  in  their 
sentiments."  When  the  noun  expresses  the  idea  of 
unity,  the  verb  should  be  singular ;  as,  "The  council 
was  composed  wholly  of  farmers." 

Wc  ought  to  consider  whether  the  term  will  immediately  suggest  the  idea 
of  the  number  it  represents,  or  whether  it  exhibits  to  the  mind  the  idea  of  tlie 
v\  hole,  as  one  thing.  In  the  former  case,  the  \'erb  ought  to  be  plural  ;  in  the 
latter,  it  ought  to  be  singular.  Thus,  it  seems  improper  to  say,  "  The  peasant- 
ry goes  barefoot,  and  the  middle  sort  makes  use  of  wooden  shoes."  It  would 
be  better  to  say,  "  The  peasantry' ^o  barefoot,  and  the  middle  sort  make  use," 
&c.,  because  the  idea,  in  both  these  cases,  is  that  of  a  number.  On  the  con- 
trary, there  is  a  harshness  in  the  following  sentences,  in  which  nouns  of  num- 
ber have  verbs  plural,  because  tl>e  ideas  they  represent  seem  not  to  be  suffi- 
ciently divided  in  the  mind  :  "  The  court  of  Rome  were  not  without  solicitude." 
"The  house  of  commons  were  of  small  weight."  "  The  house  of  lords  were 
so  much  influenced  by  these  reasons."  "  Stephen's  party  icere  entirely  broken 
up  by  the  captivity  of  their  leader."  "  An  army  of  twenty-four  thousand  were 
assembled."  "  What  reason  Imve  the  church  of  Rome  for  proceeding  in  this 
manner  1"  "  There  is  indeed  no  constitution  so  tame  and  careless  of  their 
own  defence."—"  All  the  virtues  of  mankind  are  to  be  counted  upon  a  few  fin- 
gers, but  his  follies  and  vices  are  innumerable."  Is  not  mankijid,  in  this  place, 
a  noun  of  multitude,  ajid  such  as  requires  the  pronoun  referring  to  be  in  the 
plural  number,  their  1 

"  The  peasantry  goes  barefoot,"  &Ci  What  correction  is  necessary  m  lliis 
example  ?     Why "? 

"The    people   -rejoices     in    that  "  The  court /tat^c  just  ended,  after 

which    should    give    it    sor-  having  sat  through  the  trial 

row."  of  a  very  long  cause." 

"  The  flock,  and  not  the   fleece,  "  The  crowd  xccre  so  great,  that 

are,  or  ought  to   be,  the  oh-  the  judges  with  difficulty  made 

jects  of  the  shepherd's  care."  their  way  through  them." 

(1.)  407.  C20  Conjunction  when  followed  by  nor.  (3.)  Rule  XIII. 


130 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


"  The  corporation  of  York  cansist 
of  a  mayor,  aldermen,  and  ;i 
comiiioii  council." 

"  The  British  parliament  are  com- 
posed of  king,  lords  and  com- 
mons." 
V/hen  the  nation  complain,  the 
rulers  should  listen  to  their 
voice." 

"  In  the  days  of  youth,  the  mul- 
titude eagerly  pursues  pleas- 
ure as  lis  chief  good." 

"  The  cliurch  have  no  power  to 
inflict  corporal  punishment." 

"  The  fleet  were  seen  sailing  (J.) 
up  the  channel." 

"  The  regmient  consist  of  a  thou- 
sand (2.)  men." 

"  Tiie  meeting  have  established 
several  salutary  regulations." 

"  The  council  was  not  unanimous, 
and  it,  separated  without  coin- 
ing (o.)  to  any  determina- 
tion." 

"  The  fleet  is  all  arrived  and 
moored  (4.)  in  safety." 


"  This  people  drmceth  near  to  me 
with  their  mouth,  and  honor- 
eth  me  with  their  lips,  but 
their  heart  is  far  from  me." 

"  The  connnittee  icus  divided  in 
its  sentiments,  and  it  has  re- 
ferred the  business  to  the  gen- 
eral meeting." 

"  I'he  connnittee  were  very  full 
Vv'hen  this  point  was  decided ; 
and  their  judgment  has  not 
been  called  in  question." 

"  Why  (6.)  do  tliis  generation 
wish  for  greater  evidence, 
when  so  much  (5.)  is  already 
given .''" 

'  The  remnant  of  the  people  were 
persecuted  with  great  severi- 
ty-" 

"  Never  were  any  people  so  (G.) 
much  (6.)  infatuated  (7.)  as 
the  Jewish  nation." 

"  The  shoal  of  herrings  were  of 
an  immense  extent.'' 

"  No  society  are  chargeable  with 
the  disapproved  (8.)  miscon- 
duct of  particular  members." 


ntrLS   V. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE    V. 

Pronouns  must  agree  ivith  the  nouns  for  which  they 
stand,  ill  gender,  number  and  person. 

Of  lliis  rule  (here  arc  many  violations  to  be  met  with  ;  a  few  of  which  may 
he  fUiiiclcnl  lo  put  llic  ieariier  on  his  giuird.  "  Each  of  the  sexes  should  keep 
witliiii  ils  [mrticular  bounds,  and  content  fheniselres  with  the  advantages  of 
their  pnriicular  districts  :"  better  ihiis  ;  "  The  sexes  should  keep  within  their 
particular  bounds,"  &c.  "  Can  any  one,  on  their  entrance  into  the  world,  be 
fully  secure  that  they  shall  not  be  deceived  ?"  •'  on  /lis  entrance,"  and  •'  that 
he  shuli."  "  One  should  not  think  too  favorably  of  ourselves  ;■'  "  of  one's 
self.''  "  He  hud  one  acciuaintancc  which  poisoned  his  principles;"  "who 
poisoiicd." 

Every  relative  miist  have  an  antecedent  to  which  it  refers,  either  expressed 
or  im])licd  ;  as,  "  Who  is  fatal  to  others,  is  so  lo  himself  3"  that  is,  "  the  man 
wlio  is  I'a^J  to  ethers." 

IMic.  which,  ivhat  and  the  relative  that,  though  in  Uie  objective  case,  are 
always  placed  before  the  verb  ;  as  are  also  their  compounds,  whoever,  whoso- 
ever, &c.  ;  as,  "  He  whom  30  seek  ;"  "  This  is  what,  or  the  thing  v.'hich,  or 
that  you  want  ;''  "  Whonisoc\er  you  please  to  appoint." 

nV.v'/  is  sometimes  applied  in  a  n;anner  which  appears  to  be  exceptionable; 
as.  "  All  fevers,  except  what  are  called  nervous,"  &c.  It  would  at  least  be 
belter  to  sa}-,  "  except  those  irhich  are  called  nervous." 

•'  One  should  not  think  too  favorabh-  of  ourselves."  How  shoidd  this  sen- 
tence be  altered  ?  What  is  the  Rule  for  it '?  Are  the  relatives  placed  before 
cr  after  the  verb  ? 


(1.)  Rule  XIII.  (2.)  Nute  t.  405. 

(6.)  Adverb.        (7.)  "were  ivfatiiatea.'" 


(3.)  561.  (4.)  Rule  XI. 

(8.)  Rule  XUI. 


(6.)  673 


SYNTAX. 


131 


"  TJie  exercise  of  reason  appears 

as    (1.)    little    (2.)    in    these 

sportsmen,   as   in    the    lioasts 

whom  they  sometimes  iiunt, 

and  by  whom  they  are  some- 
times hunted." 
*'  They  in.'dch  seek  Wisdom  will 

certainly  find  her." 
"  The  male  amongst  birds  seems 

to  discover  no  beauty,  but  in 

the  color  of  its  species." 
'  Take  handfuls  of  ashes  of  the 

furnace,      and      let      Moses 

sprinkle   it    towards    heaven, 

in  the  sight  of  Pharaoh  ;   and 

it  shall  become  small  dust." 
*  Rebecca  took    goodly   raiment, 

which  were  with  her  in  tlie 

house,    and    put   tliem     upon 

Jacob." 
"The  wheel  killed  another  man, 

which  is  the  sixth  icliich  have 

lost  tlieir  /irfsby  this  means." 
"  The    fair    sex,  whose    task    is 

not  to  mingle  in  the  labors  of 

pui)lic   life,   has  its  own  part 

assigned  it  to  act." 
"  The  flercules  man-of-war  found- 
ered at  sea  ;  she  overset,  and 

lost  most  (3.)  of  her  men." 
"  The  mind  of  man  cannot  be  long 

witliout  some  food  to  nourish 

the  activity  of  his  thoughts." 

1.  Personal  pronouns,  being  uved  lo  snpplj'  the  place  of  the  noun,  are  not 
eniplovod  in  llie  same  pari  oC  a  sentence  as  the  noun  which  they  represent  ; 
for  it  would  bo  improper  to  say,  "The  kinu;  he  is  just;"  "I  saw  her  the 
queen  ;"  '•  The  men  they  were  there  ;"  •'  Many  wurtis  Iheij  darken  s|)eech  ;" 
'•  My  banks  ?/iCi/ are  furnished  willi  I ic.-s,"  'I'lic  o  prr^onais  are  superfluous, 
as  lliere  is  not  liie  least  occasion  k,\-  ;i  scb  .l:;;iu'  in  'lie  same  pari  wliere  the 
principal  word  is  present.  The  nom:n:ili\  c  ca:  o  /.V;;.  in  the  followin<j  sea 
leitce,  is  also  superfluous  :  "  Who,  instead  of  going  about  doing  good,  they  are 
perpeluallv  intent  upon  doing  mischief." 

'•  The  king  he  is  just."  Will  you  correct  liiis  «riUcnce,  and  tell  why  it  is 
wrong  ? 

1. 
"  Whoever  (18.)  entertains  such  often    choke    the    gro-\vth    of 

an  opinion,  he  judges  errone-  virtue." 

ouslv."  ■'  Disajjpoiiitmenls  and  atPiictions, 

"  The  cares  of   this   world,   t.liaj  however     disagreeable,    they 

often  improve  us." 

2.  The  ]ironoun  that  is  frequently  applied  to  persons  as  well  as  to  things  ; 
but  a  tier  an  adjecti\e  in  the  superlative  degree,  and  alter   the  pronominal  ad- 

(1.)  Uule  IX.  ra.)  Adverb.  (3.)  676.  (4.)  561.  (5.)  Rule  i'V. 

(6.)  Rule  XV.  (7.)  "  t/(o.--e  which."  437.  (8.)  "such   covcerns,"  Rule  IV. 

(9.)  Rule  IV.         (10.)  Rule  VI.  and  X.  Note  XVII.        (11.)  Rule  XV.         (12.)  Rule 
XIII.  (13.)  "  co]\fined:it."  (14.)  "  Rarest."  "15.)  Conjunction 

(16.)  Rule  XIII.  (17.)  ''dost  range."  (18.)  "  He  aho." 


"  What  is  the  reason  that  our  lan- 
guage is  less  refined  titan 
those  of  Italy,  Spain,  or 
France  ?" 

"  I  do  not  think  any  one  should 
incur  censure  for  being  (4.) 
tender  (5.)  of  their  reputa- 
tion." 

"  Thou  who  hast  been  a  witness 
((J.)  of  the  fact,  can  give  an 
account  of  it." 

"  In  religious  concerns,  or  what 
(7.)  is  conceived  to  be  such, 
(8.)  every  man  must  stand  or 
fall  by  tlie  decision  of  the 
great  Judge." 

"  Something  like  (9.)  what  (10.) 
have  been  here  premised,  are 
the  conjectures  of  Dryden.'" 

"  Thou  great  First   Cause,  (11.) 
least  understood  !  (12.) 
Who  all  my  sense  confined,  (13.) 

To  know  but  this,  that  thou  art 
good. 
And  that  mj^self  (1 1 .)  am  blind 

Yet  gave  (14.)  me  in  this  dark 
estate,"  &C. 

"  What  (Ci.)  art  thou,  (11.)  speak, 
that,  (J5.)  on  designs  un- 
known, (IG.) 

While  others  sleep,  thus  range 
(17.)  the  camp  alone.'" 


132  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

jective  same,  it  is  generally  used  in  preference  to  who  or  n'liich  ;  as,  "  Charles 
XII.  king  of  Sweden,  was  one  of  ihe  greatest  madmen  that  the  world  ever 
saw  ;"  "  Catiline's  followers  were  llic  most  profligate  that  could  be  found  in 
any  city  ;"  "  He  is  the  same  man  that  we  saw  before."  There  arc  cases 
wherein  we  cannot  conveniently  dispense  with  this  relative  as  applied  to  per- 
sons :  as,  first,  after  irho,  the  interrogative  ;  "Who,  that  has  any  sense  of  reli- 
gion, would  have  armed  thus  V  Secondly,  when  persons  make  but  a  part  of 
flic  antecedent ;  "  The  woman,  and  the  estate,  that  became  his  portion,  were 
too  much  for  his  moderation."  In  neither  of  these  examples  could  any  other 
relative  have  been  used. 

To  what  is  the  pronoun  that  applied  ?  and  when  is  it  used  in  preference  to 
icho  or  ivhich  ?  (416.  1,  2,  3,  4,  5.)     Give  an  example. 

2. 

"  Moaes   was   the   meekest   man  "  They  are  the  same  peraona  teho 

whom  we  read  of  in  the  Old  assisted  us  yesterday." 

Testament."  "  The  men  and  things  lohich  he 

"  Htunility    is   one   of  the   most  has  studied,  have  not  improv- 

amiable  virtues  ichich  we  can  ed  his  morals." 

possess." 

3.  The  pronouns  whichsoever,  ivhosoevet ,  and  the  like,  are  elegantly  divided 
b^  the  interposition  of  the  correspondmg  substantives  ;  thus,  '|  On  whichsoever 
side  the  king  cast  his  eyes,"  would  have  sounded  better,  if  written,  "  On  which 
side  soever,"  &c. 

Will  you  give  an  example  in  which  the  compound  pronoun  whichsoever  may 
be  divided  with  propriety  ? 

3. 
"  Howsoever  beautiful   they  ap-     "  On  whichsoever  side  they  are 
pear,  they  have  no  real  mer-  contemplated,  they  appear  to 

it."  advantage." 

•'  In   whatsoever  light   we  view     "  However  much  lie    might   de- 
him,  his  conducl  will  bear  in-  spise  the  maxims  of  the  king's 

epection."  administration,  he  kept  a  total 

silence  on  that  subject." 

4.  Many  persons  are  apt.  In  conversation,  to  put  the  objective  case  of  the 
personal  pronouns,  in  the  place  of  ^/i-sse  and  those;  as,  "  Give  me  them  books," 
instead  of  "  those  books."  We  may  sometimes  find  this  fault  even  in  writing: 
as,  "  Observe  them  three  there."  We  also  frequently  meet  with  those  instead 
of  ihey,  at  tlie  beginning  of  a  sentence,  and  where  there  is  no  particular  refer- 
ence to  an  antecedent  ;"as,  •'  TViose  that  sow  in  tears,  sometimes  reap  in  joy;" 
"  They  that,  or  they  who  sow  in  tears." 

It  is  not,  ho\\ever,  always  easy  to  say,  whether  a  personal  pronoun  or  a  de- 
monstrative is  preferable,  in  certain  constructions.  "  We  are  not  unacquaint- 
ed with  the  calumny  of  them  [or  those]  who  openly  make  use  of  the  warmest 
professions." 

"  Give  me  them  books."      Why  is  this  sentence  incorrect  ? 

4. 

"  Wliich  of  ^/(C7«,  two  persons  has  fer  injuries,  than   those    (2.) 

most  disllngnished  liimself .'"  that  are  most  (3.)  forward  in 

"  None  (1.)  more  impatiently  suf-  doing  (4.)  them.  (5.) 

5.  In  some  dialects,  the  word  iclial  is  improperly  used  for  fJmt,  and  some- 
times we  find  it  in  this  sense  in  writing  ;  "  They  will  never  believe  but  what  I 
have  been  entirely  to  blame."  "  I  am  not  satisfied  but  what,"  &c.,  instead  of 
"  but  that.''  The  word  somewhat,  in  the  following  sentence,  seems  to  be  used 
improperly     "  These  pHiiishmcnts  seem  to  have  been  exercised  in  somewhat 

(1.^  Rule  VI         (2.1  Note  I   405  ''3.)  677.        (4.)  5G1  (5.)  Rule  XIV. 


SYNTAX.  133 

en  arbitrary  manner."     Sometimes  we  read,  "  In  somewhat  of."    THie  mealt 
ing  is,  "  in  a  manner  whicli  is,  in  some  respects,  arbitrary." 

Will  you  give  an  example  of  tlie  improper  use  o[  what  instead  of  dial  ? 
5. 
"  He  would  not  be  persuaded  but    "  These   commendations   of    his 
what   (1 .)    I    was   greatly  in  children  appear  to  have  been 

fault."  made  in  somewhat  (2.)  an  in 

judicious  manner." 

6.  The  pronoun  relative  tvho  is  so  much  appropriated  to  persons,  that  there 
is  generally  harshness  in  the  application  of  it,  except  to  the  proper  names  of 
persons,  or  the  general  terms  man,  woman,  &c.  A  term  which  only  implies 
the  idea  of  persons,  and  expresses  them  by  some  circumstance  or  epithet,  will 
hardly  authorize  the  use  ot  it ;  as,  "  That  the  faction  in  England  who  most 
powerfully  opposed  his  arbitrary  pretensions."  "  That  faction  which,"  would 
have  been  better ;  and  the  same  ren.ark  will  serve  for  the  following  examples  i 
"  France,  7vho  was  in  alliance  with  Sweden."  "  The  court  who,"  &c.  "  The 
caVaJry  who,"  &c.  "  The  cities  ivho  aspired  at  liberty."  "  That  party 
among  us  luho,"  tfcc.     "  The  family  whom  they  consider  as  usurpers." 

In  some  cases,  it  may  be  doubtful,  whether  this  pronomi  is  properly  applied 
or  not ;  as.  "The  number  of  substantial .  inhabitants  wth  ti'/icM/i  some  cities 
abound."  For  when  a  term  directly  and  necessarily  implies  persons,  it  may  in 
many  cases  claim  the  personal  relative.  "  None  of  the  company  whom  he  most 
artectod  could  cure  him  of  the  melancholy  under  which  lie  labored."  The 
word  (Acquaintance  may  have  the  same  construction. 
IIow  is  the  relative  who  used  1 

6. 
"  He    instructed     and     fed     the     "  Ha    was    the    ablest    minister 
crowds    zo/jo  (3.)    surrounded  which  James  ever  possessed." 

him."  "  The  court,  who  gives  currency 

"  Sidney  was  one  of  the  wisest  to  manners,  ought  to  be  ex- 

and   most   active    governors,  emplary."  (4.) 

which    Ireland   had   enjoyed     "  I  am  nappy  in  the  friend  which 
for  several  years."  1  have  long  proved." 

7.  We  hardly  consider  little  children  as  persons,  because  that  term  gives  us 
the  idea  of  reason  and  reflection  ;  and,  therefore,  the  application  of  the  person- 
al relative  who,  in  this  case,  seems  to  be  harsh  :  "  A  child  who."  It  is  still 
more  improperly  applied  to  animals  ;  "  A  lake  frequented  by  that  fowl 
ichom  nature  has  taught  to  dip  the  wing  in  water." 

Do  we  say,  "A  cliild  who/'  or  "A  child  which"  7  Will  you  repeat 
the  Note  for" this? 

7. 
'«  The  child  ^chom  we  have  just     "  He  is  like  (4.)  a  beast  (5.^  of 
seen,  is  wholesomely  fed,  and  prey,  who    destroys    without 

not  injured  by  bandages    or  pity." 

clothing." 

8.  When  the  name  of  a  person  is  used  merely  as  a  name,  and  it  does 
not  refer  to  the  person,  the  pronoun  icho  oadit  not  to  be  applied.  "  It  is 
no  wonder  if  such  a  man  did  not  shine  at  the  court  of  queen  Elizabeth, 
who  was  but  another  name  for  prudence  and  economy."  Belter  thus  t 
"  whose  name  was  but  another  word  for  prudence,"  &c.  The  word  lohost 
begins  likewise  to  be  restricted  to  persons  ;  yet  it  is  not  done  so  general 
ly,  but  that  good  writers,  even  in  prose,  use  it  when  speaking  of  things 
The  construction  is  not,  however,  generally  pleasing,  as  we  may  see  in  tlin 
followinsf  instances;  "Pleasure,  wTwse  nature,"  &c.  "Call  every  produc- 
tion, whose  parts  and  lohose  nature,"  &c. 

'I.)  "tftnt.'''     Conjnnctioii.  (9.)  "  in  a  manner  ithlek  i.i,  in  iome  resmeets,  ipju- 

dUnous."        (S.t  "tkat  "         (4  )  Rule  IV.         (5.)  Rule  X.  Noto  XVll. 

12 


134  ENGLISH  GRMIMAR. 

In  one  case,  however,  cusiom  authorizes  us  to  use  which,  with  respect 
to  persons  ;  and  that  is,  when  we  want  to  distinguish  one  person  of  two, 
or  a  particular  person  amon^  a  number  of  otiiers.  We  should  then  say, 
"  Wliich  of  the  two,"  or  "  H'hich  of  ihcm  is  he  or  she  V 

"  The  court  of  queen  Elizabeth,  who,"  tfcc.  Will  you  correct  this  sentence, 
and  fifive  the  Note  for  it  ? 

^  8. 

"  Having  once  disgusted  (1 .)  him,  deceive  and  betray,  should  be 

he  could  never  regain  the  fa-  avoided  as  the  poisonous  ad- 

vor  of  Nero,  who  ictis  indeed  der." 

another  name  for  cruelty."  "  Who  of  those  men  came  to  his 

"  Flattery,  whose  nature  (2.)  is  to  assistance  ?" 

9.  As  the  pronoun  relative  has  no  distinction  of  number,  we  sometimes  find 
an  ambig-iiily  in  the  use  of  it ;  as,  when  we  say,  "  Tlie  disciples  of  Christ,  whom 
we  imitate,"  we  may  mean  the  imitation  eillicr  of  Christ,  or  of  his  disciples. 
The  accuracy  and  clearness  of  the  sentence  depend  very  much  upon  the 
proper  and  determinate  use  of  the  relative,  so  that  it  may  readily  present  its 
antecedent  to  the  mind  of  the  hearer  or  reader,  without  any  obscurity  or  am- 
bi^ity. 

Wliat  is  remarked  in  this  Note  on  the  use  of  the  relative  pronoun  t 
9. 
"  The  king  (3.)  dismissed  his  niin-     "  There  are  millions  of  people  in 
ister   without    any    inquiry  ;  the    empire    (4.)    of    China, 

who  had   never  before   com-  wliose  support  is  derived, al- 

mitted  so  unjust  an  action."  most  entirely  from  rice." 

10.  Tt  is  and  it  was  are  often,  aller  the  manner  of  the  French,  used  in  a 
plural  construction,  and  by  some  of  our  best  writers  ;  as,  "  It  is  either  a  few 
great  men  who  decide  for  the  whole,  or  if  is  liie  rabble  that  follow  a  seditious 
ring-leader  ;"  "  Tt  is  tliey  that  are  the  real  authors,  though  the  soldiers  are  iha 
actors  of  the  revolution  ;''  "  It  kvw  the  heretics  that  first  began  to  rail,"  &.C.  ; 
"  '7\s  thfse  that  ea-Hy  taint  the  female  mind."  This  license  in  the  construction 
of  it  is,  (if  it  be  proper  to  admit  it  at  aH.)  has,  hoviever,  been  certainly  abused 
in  the  following  sentence,  which  is  thereby  made  a  very  awkward  one  :  "  It  is 
wonderfu.  the  very  few  accidents,  which,  in  several  years,  liappcn  from  this 
practice.'' 

How  are  it  is  and  it  was  often  used  1  Give  an  example  in  which  they  are 
used  incorrectly  in  this  sense. 

10. 
"  [t  is  remarkable  his  continual     "  It  is  indisputably  true  his  asser- 
endeavors   to  serve    us,   not-  tion,  though  it  is  a  pa7-adox." 

withstanding      our      ingrati-  (6.) 

tude."  (5.) 

11.  The  interjections  O .'  oh  .'  and  ah  !  require  the  objective  case  of  a  pro» 
noun  ill  the  first  person  after  tlicm  ;  as,  "O  me  !  Oh  me  !  Ak  me  !"  but  the 
nominative  case  In  the  second  person  ;  as,  "  O  thou  persecutor  !"  "  O  ye  hyp- 
ocrites !"  "  O  thou  who  dwellest,"  &c. 

The  neuter  pronoun,  by  an  idiom  peculiar  to  the  English  language,  is  fre- 
quently joined,  in  explanatory  sentences,  with  a  noun  or  pronoun  cA  the  mas- 
culine or  feminine  gender  ;  as,  "  it  weis  I  ;"  "  It  was  the  man  or  woman  that 
did  it." 

Tlie  neuter  pronoun  it  is  sometimes  omitted  and  understood  :  thus  wc  say,^ 
"  As  appears,  ^.s  follows,"  for  "  As  it  appears,  as  it  follows  ;"  and  "  May  be,"" 
for  "  It  ma}'  be." 

(1.)  "  Having  disgusted."  Rule  XUT.  (9.)  "  the  nature  ofiohkh."  (3.)  "  Th* 
king,  who  had  never,"  (Sec.  (4- )  "  There  are  in  the  empire,"  Sec.  (5.)  "  His  coit- 
tinual,"  Sec.  ;  ending  ths  acnteace  with,  "  are  remarkable."  (6.)  "  His  assertion, 
though  par adoiital,"  Sec. 


SYNTAX.  135 

Tho  iicitter  pronoun  it  is  soinetiiucs  employed  to  express, 

1st.  'J'iic  sulijeoi  of  any  distourse  or  inquiry  ;  as,  "  It  happened  on  a  suni- 
mer's  day  ;"  "  VViio  is  it  liiat  calls  on  nic  '!" 

2d.  The  state  or  condition  of  any  person  or  thing'  ;  as,  "  ffow  is  it  with 
you  1" 

3d.  The  thinof,  whatever  it  he,  diat  is  the  cause  of  any  ertcct  or  event ;  or 
any  person  considered  merely  as  ;i  cause  ;  as,  "  W'c  hear.l  her  say  it  was  not 
he  ;"  '•  The  trudi  is,  it  was  I  that  helped  her." 

Why  is  it  incorrect  to  say,  '•  Oh  I  '■  ?       Why  incorrect  to  say,  "  Oh  thee"  ? 

11. 

"  Ah !     unhappy    thee,    who    art     "  Oh  !     happy    we,    surrounded 
deaf  to  the  calls  of  duty  and  with  so  many  blessings." 

of  honor.' 


Correiponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  VI. 

The  relative  is  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb,  when 
no  nominative  case  comes  between  it  and  the  verb ; 
as,  "  The  master  who  taught  us  ;"  "  The  trees  which 
are  planted." 

When  a  nominative  case  comes  between  the  relative  and 
the  verb,  the  relative  is  governed  by  some  word  in  its 
otvn  member  of  the  sentence  ;  as,  "  He  who  preserves 
me,  to  whom  I  owe  my  being,  whose  1  am,  and  whom 
1  serve,  is  eternal." 

In  the  several  members  of  the  last  sentence,  the  relative  performs  a  differeni 
otfice.  In  the  lirst  memher,  it  marks  ti;e  agent  ;  in  the  second,  it  submits  to 
the  government  of  the  preposition  ;  in  the  third,  it  represents  the  possessor  ; 
and  in  the  fourth,  the  object  of  au  action  :  and  therefore  it  must  be  in  the  three 
diflerent  cases,  correspondent  to  those  oaices. 

When  both  the  aiileccdeat  luid  relative  become  nominntises.  each  to  difler- 
ent verbs,  the  relative  is  ilie  noiiuirila  c  to  llie  fomier,  and  llie  antecedent  to 
the  latter  verb  ;  as,  "  True  jmilisn;  hij.  ir'uc'i  is  the  din. uncut  of  our  nature, 
cdiisists  more  in  the  love  of  our  duly,  and  the  practice  <n  \  irvue,  than  in  great 
talents  and  extensive  knowlclge." 

A  few  instances  of  erroneous  construction  will  iliustrate  both  branches  of 
the  sixth  rule.  The  three  follovi'ing  refer  to  the  first  part  :  "  IIovv  can  we 
avoid  being  srratefu!  to  those  wlsom,  by  r.'-peated  kind  oillces,  have  proved 
themselves  our  real  friends  ?"  ''  Tlieso  are  the  men  whom,  you  might  sup- 
pose, were  the  authors  of  the  work.''  "  If  you  were  hero,  you  would  tind  three 
or  four,  whom  you  would  sa^'  passed  their  time  agreeably."  In  all  these 
places,  it  shoukl  be  .rho,  instead  of  irhoyn.  The  Iwo  latter  sentences  contain 
ft  nominative  between  the  relative  and  the  vcr!) ;  aid.  dierefore,  seem  to 
contravene  the  r'.le  ;  but  the  student  will  rcilccl.  thai  it  is  not  the  nominative 
of  the  verb  with  which  the  relative  is  connected. — "J'lie  remaining  examples  re- 
fer to  tho  second  part  of  the  rule  :  "  Men  of  tine  talents  are  not  alwax's  the 
persons  who  we  should  esteem."  "  The  persons  who  you  dispute  with  are 
precisely  of  your  opinion."  "  Our  tutors  are  our  benefactors,  who  we  owe 
obedience  to,  and  who  we  ought  to  love."  In  these  sentences,  whom  should 
be  used  instead  of  who. 

•'  These  are  the  men  whom,  you  might  suppose,  were,"  &c.  Will  you  cor- 
rect this  example,  and  give  the  rule  for  it  7 


106  ENGLISH  (JRAMMAR. 

"  We    are    dependent    on    each  "  They  who  have  labored  to  make 

others'  assistance  :    ichom  is  us  wise  and  good,  are  the  per- 

there  that  can  subsist  by  him-  sons   who  we   ought  to  love 

self?"  and    respect,    and    who    we 

"  If  he    will    not   hear    his    best  ouirht  to  be  grateful  to." 

friend,  whom  shall  be  sent  to  "  The    persons,    who   conscience 

admonish  him  ?"  and  virtue  support,  may  smile 

"They    icko  {\.)   mucli  is  given  at  the  caprices  Of  fortune." 

to,  will  have  much  (2.)  to  an-  "  From   tlie    character    of    those 

Bwer  for."  (3.)  who  you  associate  with,  your 

"  It  is  not  to    be  expected    that  own  will  be  estimated." 

they,  ichovi  in  early  life  have  "  That  (4.)   is  the   student  who  I 

been  dark  and  deceitful,  should  gave  the  book  to,  and  whom, 

afterwards   become    fair    and  1  am  persuaded,  deserves  it." 
ingenuous." 

1.  When  the  rclalive  pronoun  is  of  the  interrogative  kind,  the  noun  or  pro- 
noun containing  the  answer,  must  be  in  the  same  case  as  that  which  contains 
the  question  ;  as,  "  ]Vhose  books  are  these  ?"  "  The}'  are  Jolm's."  "  Tl7io 
gave  them  to  him  ?"  "  W'e."  "  Of  «7i(jm  did  you  buy  them  ?"  "Of  a  book- 
seller ;  him  who  fives  at  the  Bible  and  Crown."  "  l\  nom  did  you  see  there  1" 
"  Hoth  him  and  the  shopman."  The  learner  will  readily  comprehend  this 
rule,  by  supplying  the  words  which  are  understood  in  the  answers.  Thus,  to 
express  the  answers  at  large,  we  should  say,  "  They  are  John's  books  ;"  "  We 
gave  them  to  him  ;"  "  We  bought  them  of  him  who  lives,"  &c. ;  "  We  saw 
both  him  and  the  shopman."  As  the  relative  pronoun,  when  used  interroga- 
tively, refers  to  the  subsequent  word  or  phrase  containing  the  answer  to  the 
question,  that  word  or  phrase  may  properly  be  termed  the  subsequent  to  the  in- 
terrogative. 

"  Of  whom  did  you  buy  them  ?"  "  Of  a  bookseller  ;  he  who  lives,"  &c. 
What  is  wrong  in  this  sentence,  and  how  may  it  be  corrected  ?  What  is  the 
Note  for  it  ? 

1, 
"Of   whom    were    the    articles    "  Who  was  the  money  paid  to .'" 

bought.'"  "Of  a  mercer;  he  "To    the    mercer     and    his 

(5.)  who  resides  near  (G.)  the  clerk." 

mansion-house."  "Who  counted   it.'"  "Both  the 

"  Was  any  person  besides  (6.)  the  clerk  and  him." 

mercer  present .''"  "  Yes,  both 

him  and  his  clerk." 

C'orrcspondiiij;  with  Murray's  Graiamar, 
KULE  VII. 

When  the  relative  is  preceded  by  two  nominatives  of 
different  persons,  the  relative  and  verb  may  agree  in 
person  ivith  either,  according  to  the  sense ;  as,  "  I  am 
the  man  ivho  command  you;"  or,  "I  am  the  man 
who  commands  you." 

The  form  of  the  first  of  the  two  preceding  sentences  expresses  the  meaning 
rather  ob3curel^^  It  would  be  more  perspicuous  to  say,  "  I,  who  commanq 
you,  am  the  man."  Perhaps  the  dilfcrence  of  meaning  producesl  by  referring 
the  relative  to  diflerent  antecedents,  will  be  more  evident  to  the  learner  in  the 

(1.)  "  to  whom."  (2.)  C73.  (3.)  596.  (4.)  Note  I.  405. 

(5,)  Rule  XV.  (C.)    47. 


SYNTAX.  137 

followniig'  sentences  :  "  1  am  the  general  who  gives  tlie  orders  to-day  ;"  "  I  am 
ilie  fjeneral,  wlio  o-ire  the  orders  to-day  ;"  that  is,  "I,  who  give  the  orders  to- 
da}',  am  the  general." 

When  iho  relative  and  the  verb  have  been  determined  to  agree  with  either 
of  the  preceding  noniinalivcs.  lliat  agreement  must  be  j)resprv«d  throughout 
the  senlence  ;  as  in  the  following  iiislanec  :  "  I  am  the  Lord,  that  mulceih  all 
things  ;  that  slretchetlt  forth  the  heavens  alone."  Isa.  xliv.  24.  Thus  far  is 
riiasistent :  the  Lord,  in  tlie  third  person,  is  the  autecede.i.t,  and  the  verb  agrees 
\v  !:.  ilic  relative  in  the  third  person  :  "  I  am  llie  Lord,  which  I-,ord,  or  he,  that 
]ii.:d,'.'i.  all  things."  If  /  were  made  the  antecedent,  the  relative  and  verb 
should  agree  with  it  in  the  first  person  ;  as,  "  /  am  the  Lord,  that  iiiake  all 
things;  //w/ .sOr/t/i  forth  the  ht-avcus  alone."  But  should  it  follow,  "  Uiat 
sprt\adeth  abroad  the  earth  by  myself,"  there  would  arise  a  confusion  of  per- 
sons, an!  a  manifest  solecism. 

"  I  am  the  man  who  command  ynu."  "  I  am  the  maii-who  commands  j-ou." 
What  is  the  nominative  to  conimmtii  in  the  first  sentence  ?  What  to  cvmmands 
in  liie  second  ?  Rule  for  eacli  !  Why  is  the  verb  of  a  difl'erent  person  in 
dlflercnt  sentences  '! 

"  I   apknowledge   thai   (J.)   1   am     "  I  perceive  that  thou  art  a  pupil 
the  teacher,  (5.)    who    adopt  who    p  issesses    bright    parts, 

(ii:it  sentiment,  and  innintiiins  but  who  hast  cultivated  them 

the   propriety   of  ijucli   na-as-  but  ('.i.)  little."  (4.) 

ures."  (Ij.)  "  Thou  art  he  (5.)  who  breathest 

"  'i'hou  art  a  friend  (.'.)  tliat  liast  on  the  earth  with  the  breath 

often   relieved   me,  and    that  of  spring,  and   who  covereth 

ha.s  noi  deserted  nie  now.  in  it  willi  verdure  and  beauty." 

tlie  tiine  of  peculiar  need.'         "  I  am  the  Lord  (5.)  thy  God,  (5.) 
"  I  am  tlie   miin  who  approves  of  wlio  teacheth  thee   to  profit, 

wholesome     discipline,     aiul  and  who  lead  thee  by  the  way 

who  rrcomwr.iid  it  to  others  ;  tiiou  shouldst  go." 

but  1   am   not  a  person  who     "  Thou    art   the    Lord    who    did 
promotes  useless  severity,  or  choose  Abraham,  and  brought- 

who  object  to  mild  and  gen-  est  him  forth  (4.)  out  of  (().) 

erous  treatment."  Ur  of  the  Chaldees.'' 

('orresponJin^?  vvitli  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE   VIII. 

Adjectives  belong  to  the  nouns  ivhich  they  describe. 
NoTK  I.     Adjective  pronouns  and  numerals  must  agree 
ill  number  witii  tlie  nouns  to  which  tliey  belong. 
I.   AD.JECTIVK  FRONOUiN'S. 

A  few  instances  of  the  broach  of  this  rule  are  here  e.'ihibited  :  "  1  have  not 
trwelled  this  twentv  jcars  ;"  "  //iav  twenty."  "  I  am  not  recommending 
these  kind  of  sufferings  ;"  "  lhi:i  kind."  "  'j'hose  set  of  books  was  a  vnJuable 
present  ;"  "  iliai  set." 

"  I  have  not  travelled  (his  twenty  years."     ITow   should   this   l.c   altered  7 
Wiiy  ? 
"  These  kind  of  indulgences  soft-  playing  (■'•)   ^'"S  two  hours.' 

en  and  injure  the  mind."  (10  ) 

''  Listead    (7.)    of  iriiprovin'r   (S.)     "  Those  sort  of  favors  did  real  in 
yourselves,    you'  have  "  been  jury,  under  the  appearance  ol 

kindness." 


M  1  fi")^  I'^.i  "  ndiwt<!  !ukI  Hiointo/.v-i,"  or  "  adopt,  and  maintain."  (I?.)  6.54. 

i-iVLu-c'th.         ^.^.^  Rnln  XV.  (G.)  2-17.         (7.)  217.         (8.)  5(31.         (9.)  Rule 

jClil  (10.)  Uule  XXn    f.15. 

\2  * 


139  EKGLISIl  GRAALMAR. 

<*  The  chasm  made    (1.)   by   the     "  How  many  a  sorrow  (5.)  should 
earthquake  was  twenty  foot  we  avoid,  if  we  were  not  in- 

(2.)  broad,  (3.)  and  one  hun-  dustrious  to  make  them  !" 

dred  fathom  (4.)  in  depth."        "  He  saw  one  or  more  persons  (6.) 

enter  (7.)  the  garden." 

1.  The  word  means,  in  the  singular  number,  and  the  phrase  "by  this 
vieans,"  "  by  that  means,"  are  used  by  our  best  and  most  correct  writers  ; 
namely,  Bacon,  Tillotson,  Atterbury,  Addison,  Steele,  Pope,  &c.*  They  are, 
indeed,  in  so  general  and  approved  use,  that  it  would  appear  awkward,  if  not 
affected,  to  apply  the  old  snii^xilar  fonn,  and  say,  "  by  this  mean  ;"  "by  that 
viean  ;"  "  it  was  bj'  a  mean  ,■"  although  it  is  more  agreeable  to  tlie  general 
analogy  of  the  lanmage.  "  The  word  means  (says  Priestley)  belongs  to  the  class 
of  words,  which  do  not  change  their  termination  on  account  of  number  ;  for  it 
is  used  alike  in  both  numbers." 

The  word  amends  is  used  in  this  manner,  in  the  follo\\jng  sentences  : 
"  Though  he  did  not  succeed,  he  gained  the  approbation  of  his  country  ;  and 
with  this  a.mends  he  was  content.''  "  Peace  of  mind  is  an  honorable  amends 
for  the  sacrifices  of  uiterest."  "  In  return,  he  received  the  thanks  of  his  em- 
ployerSj  and  the  present  of  a  large  estate  :  these  were  ample  amends  for  all  his 
labors.  "  We  have  described  the  rewards  of  vice  :  the  good  man's  amends 
are  of  a  different  nature." 

It  can  scarcely  be  doubted,  that  this  word  amends  (like  the  word  7neans) 
had  formerly  its  correspondent  form  in  the  singular  number,  as  it  is  derived 
from  the  Frenrh  amende,  though  now  it  is  exclusively  established  in  the  plural 
form.  If,  therefore,  it  be  alleged,  Uiat  7)t€an  should  be  applied  in  the  singular, 
because  it  is  derived  from  the  French  moyen,  the  same  kind  of  argument  may 
be  advanced  in  favor  of  the  singular  amende  ;  and  the  general  analog}'  of  the 
language  may  also  be  pleaded  m  su)iport  of  it. 

Campbell,  in  his  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  has  the  following  remark  on  the 
subject  before  us  :  "  No  persons  of  taste  will,  I  presume,  venture  so  far  to  vio- 
late the  present  usa^e,  and  consequently  to  shock  tlie  ears  of  the  generality  of 
readers,  as  to  say,  'By  this  mean,  by  that  mean.'  " 

(1.)  Rule  XIII.  (;9.)  Note  XVIII.  648.  (3.)  "  chasm— liroad.''  Rule  IV. 

(4.)  Rule  IX.  (5.)  "  luantj  sorroics."  (6.)  "  oite  person,  or  more  than,  one.'" 

(7.)  Rule  Xir. 

*  "  By  this  means  he  had  them  the  mora  at  vantage,  being  tired  and  harassed  with 
a  long  march."  Bacon. 

"  Brj  this  means  one  great  restraint  from  doing  evil  would  be  taken  away."  "  And 
f/tw  is  an  admirable  means  to  improve  men  in  virtue."  ^' By  that  means  they  ha.\e 
rendered  their  duty  more  difficult."  Tillotson. 

"  It  renders  us  careless  of  approving  ourselves  to  God,  aa.^  by  that  means  securing 
the  continuance  of  his  goodness."  "  A  good  character,  w..eii  established,  should 
not  be  rested  in  as  an  end,  but  employed  as  a  means  of  doing  still  further  good." 

Atterhurv. 

"  By  this  means  they  are  happy  in  each  other."  "  He  by  that  means  preserves  his 
superiority."  Addiso?,-. 

"  Your  vanity  by  this  means  will  want  its  food."  Steele. 

"  By  this  means  alone,  their  greatest  obstacles  will  vanish."  Pope 

"  Which  custom  lias  proved  the  most  effectual  means  to  ruin  the  nobles." 

Dean  Sv.iit. 
^  "  There  U  no  means  of  escaping  the  persecution."    '"■  Faith  is  not  only  a  means  of 
obeying,  but  a  principal  act  of  obedience."  Dr.  Young. 

"  He  locked  on  money  as  a  necessarymcaHS  of  maintaining  and  increasing  power." 

Lord  Lyttleton's  Henky  IT. 

"John  was  too  much  intimidated  not  to  embrace  every  means  afforded  for  his 
safety."  Goldsmith. 

"  Lest  this  means  should  fail."  "  By  means  of  ship-money,  the  lato  kin","  Sec 
"  The  07thj  means  of  securing  a  durable  peace."  Hume. 

"  £y  this  means  there  was  nothing  left  to  the  parliament  of  Ireland,"  &c. 

Blackstone. 

"  By  this  means  so  many  slaves  escaped  out  of  the  hands  of  their  masters." 

.  Dr.  Robertson. 

"  By  this  means  they  bear  witness  to  each  other."  Burke. 

"  Sy  this  means  the  wrath  of  man  was  made  to  turn  againr^  itself."  Br.  Blair. 

"  A  magazine,  which  has,  by  this  means,  contained,"  &c.  "  Birds,  in  general 
Drocure  thcif  fflpd  by  nie»?woftheir  Jm/£,"  Dk,  Palev.   ' 


SYNTAX.  13iJ 

Lowth  and  JohiifOn  seem  to  be  against  the  use  of  means  in  the  singular 
number.  They  do  not,  however,  speeik  decisively  on  the  point;  but  rather 
dubiously,  as  it  they  knew  that  they  were  questioning  eminent  authorities  as 
well  as  general  practice.  That  they  were  not  decidedly  against  tlie  applica- 
tion of  this  word  to  tlie  singular  number,  appears  from  tlieir  own  language ! 
"  Whole  sentences,  whether  simple  or  compound,  may  become  meniLers  of 
other  sentences  by  menns  of  some  additional  connection."— Dr.  Lowth's  In- 
troduction to  English  Grammar. 

"  There  is  no  other  method  of  teaching  that  of  which  any  one  is  ignorant, 
but  by  means  of  something  already  known." — Dr.  Johnson.     Idler. 

It  is  remarkable  that  our  present  version  of  the  Scriptures  niakes  no  use,  as 
far  as  the  compiler  can  discover,  of  the  word  rnean  ;  though  there  are  several 
instances  to  be  found  in  it  of  the  use  of  means,  in  the  sense  and  connection  con- 
tended for.  '•'  By  this  means  thou  shalt  have  no  portion  on  this  side  the  river." 
Ezra  iv.  16.  "  That  by  means  of  death,"  &c.  Heb.  ix.  15.  It  will  scarcely 
be  pretended,  that  the  translators  of  the  sacred  volumes  did  not  accurately  un- 
derstand the  English  lansuage  ;  or  that  they  would  have  admitted  one  form  of 
this  word,  and  rejected  Uie  other,  had  not  their  determination  been  conforma- 
ble to  the  best  usage.  An  attempt,  therefore,  to  recover  an  old  word,  so  long 
since  disused  by  the  most  correct  wrhers,  seems  not  likely  to  be  successful  ; 
especially  as  th«  rejection  of  it  is  not  attended  with  any  inconvenience. 

The  practice  of  the  best  and  most  correct  writers,  or  a  great  majority  of 
thern,  corroborated  by  general  usage,  forms,  during  its  continuance,  the  stand- 
ard of  language  ;  especially  if,  in  particular  inslaiices,  this  practice  continue 
after  objection  and  due  consideration.  Every  connection  and  application  of 
words  and  phrases,  thus  supported,  must  therefore  be  proper,  and  entitled  to 
rcsj)ecl,  if  not  exceptionable  in  a  moral  point  of  view. 


Si  volet  usus 


"  Quern  penes  arbitrium  est,  et  jus,  et  norm^  loquendi."  HoR. 

On  tliis  principle,  many  forms  of  expression,  not  less  deviating  from  the 
general  analogy  of  the  language  lliai;  those  before  mentioned,  are  to  be  con 
sidered  as  strictly  proper  and  justifiable.  Of  this  kind  are  the  follownn"; ! 
"  None  of  tlicm  are  varied  to  express  the  gender  ;"  and  yet  none  originally 
signified  no  one.  "  He  himself  shall  do  the  work  :"  here,  what  was  at  first 
ap|)ropriated  to  the  objective,  is  now  properly  used  as  the  nominative  case. 
"  Yon  have  behaved  yourselves  well  :"  in  this  example,  tlie  word  you  is  put  in 
the  nominative  case  plural,  with  strict  propriety  ;  thougli  formeriy  it  was  con- 
fined to  the  objective  case,  and  ye  exclusively  used  for  the  nominative. 

V/iih  respect  to  anomalies  and  variations  of  language,  thus  established,  it  is 
the  granunarian's  business  to  submit,  not  to  remonstrate.  In  pertinaciously 
opposing  the  decision  of  proper  authority,  and  contending  for  obsolete  modes 
of  expression,  he  may,  indeed,  display  learning  and  critical  sagacity  ;  and, 
in  some  degree,  obscure  points  that  are  sullicienily  clear  and  decided  ;  but  he 
cannot  reasonably  hope  either  to  succeed  in  his  aims,  or  to  assist  the  learner, 
in  discovering  and  respecting  the  true  standard  and  principles  of  language. 

Cases  which  custom  has  left  dubious,  are  certainly  within  the  grammarian's 
province.  Here,  he  may  reason  and  remonstrate  on  the  ground  of  derivation, 
analogy,  and  propriety  :  and  his  reasonings  may  refine  and  improve  the  lan- 
guage ;  but  when  authority  speaks  out,  aiul  decides  the  point,  it  were  perpetu- 
ally^lo  unsettle  the  language,  to  admit  of  cavil  and  debate.  Anomalies,  then, 
under  the  limitation  mentioned,  become  the  law,  as  clearly  as  the  plainest 
analogies.  .  ,  /.  i  j 

The  reader  will  perceive  that,  in  the  follownig  sentences,  the  use  of  the  word 
mean  in  the  old  form  has  a  very  uncouth  appearance  :  "By  the  mean  of  ad- 
versity wo  are  often  instructed."  "  He  preserved  his  health  by  mean  of  exer- 
cise." "  Fruoality  is  one  meun  of  acquiring  a  competency."  They  should 
be,  "  Mym.eans  of  adversity,"  &c. ;  "  By  means  of  exercise,"  &c.;  "Frug-ali- 
ty  is  one  means,"  &c.  .      ,,  .  ■      i_      • 

■    Good  writers  do  indeed  make  use  of  the  substantive  (1.)  nuan  m  the  singa- 
lar  number,  and  in  that  nmnber  only,  to  signify  mediocrity,  middle  rate,  &.c. ; 

.. '1  I    'I  <  'J...  ■       -    ' 

(1.)  NouM  ftre  sometimes  ca-lled  substanti'ia. 


140  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

as,  "This  is  a  mean  between  ihe.iwo  extremes."  Kut  in  the  sense  of  instru- 
nienlaiily,  it  has  long  been  disused  by  the  best  authors,  and  by  almost  every 
wriifr. 

This  means  and  tliat  means  should  be  used  only  v\hcn  they  reft-r  to  what  is 
siiig'uiar  ;  these  ineans  and  those  mecnis,  when  the}'  respect  |)lurals  ;  as,  "  lie 
lived  temperately,  and  by  tliis  means  preserved  his  health  ;"  "  The  scholars 
were  attentive,  industrious,  and  obedient  to  their  tutors  ;  and  by  these  means 
acquired  knowledge." 

vVe  have  enlarged  on  this  article,  that  the  3'oung  student  ma}'  be  led  to  re- 
flect on  a  point  so  important  as  tljat  of  ascertaining  the  standard  of  propriety 
in  the  use  of  language. 

In  what  numlier  is  the  word  means  us^cd  1  \\  hat  does  Dr.  Priestley  remark 
concerning  the  use  of  this  word  .'  V<  hat  oilier  word  is  used  in  tliis  manner  ? 
What  does  Dr.  Campbell  remark  in  regard  !o  the  use  of  the  phrase,  •"  liy  this 
mean"  .'  Do  Dr.  Lowlh  and  Dr.  Johnson  approve  of  the  use  of  means  in  the 
singular  number  ?  Do  good  writers  make  u^e  of  the  substantive  (I.)  7>!j:a7t  in 
the  singular  number  /  Give  an  example.  When  should  " 'J'hlf.  means"  and 
"  That  means"  be  used  ?     \\  lien  '•  'j'liese  means"  and  ••  Tliose  means'"  ? 

1. 

"Charles  was  extravagant,   and  "  This  person  embraced  every  op- 

by   this     mean   became    poor  portunity  to   display  his   tal- 

and  despicable."  cntw ;    and    hy    thisc    means 

"  It  was  by  that  ungenerous  mean  rendered  himself  ridiculous." 

that  (2.)  he  obtained  Ills  end."  "  Josepli  was  industrious,  frugal 

"  Industry  is  the  mean  of  obtain-  and    discreet ;     and    by    this 

ing-  competency."  means  obtained  property  and 

"  Thotj^h  a  promisinff  measure,  it  reputation." 
is   a   mean   which   I    cannot 
adopt." 

2.  When  two  persons  or  things  are  spoken  of  in  a  sentence,  and  there  is 
occasion  to  mention  them  again  for  the  sake  of  distinction,  </itff  is  used  in  refer- 
ence to  the  former,  and  tliis,  in  reference  lo  the  latter  ;  as,  "  Self-love,  which 
is  the  spring  of  action  in  llie  soul,  is  ruled  b}'  reason  :  but  for  that,  man  would 
be  inactive ;  and  but  for  this,  he  would  be  active  to  no  end." 

How  tire  the  pronouns  that  and  this  used  ? 

"  Religion  raises  men  above  them-  upon  the  earth   in  those  than 

selves;  irreligion  sinks  thein  in  these;    because  there  is  a 

beneath  the  brutes  :  that  (3.)  mucli  slower  evaporation." 

binds    them    down  (4.)    to    a     "  Rex  and  Tj-rannus  are  of  very 
poor,  pitiable  speck  of  perish-  different  characters.  The  one 

able    earth  ;     this    opens    for  (3.)  rules  his  people  by  laws 

them  a  prospect  to  the  skies."  to   which  they  consent;  the 

'  More  rain  falls  in   the  first  two  other,  (Pi.)  by  his  absolute  will 

summer  months,  than  in  the  and  power :  this  is  called  free- 

first  two  winter  ones;  but  it  dom  ;  that  (5.)  tyranny." 

makes  a  much  greater  show 

3.  The  distributive  adjective  pronouns  each,  every,  either,  agree  v\ith  the 
nouns,  pronouns  and  verbs,  of  the  singular  number  only ;  as,  ''  The  king 
of  Israel,  and  Jehoshaphat,  the  king  of  Judah,  sat  each  on  his  throne  ;" 
"  Evenj  iree  is  knewn  by  its  fruit  ;"  unless  the  plural  noun  convey  a  col- 
lective idea  ;  as,  "  Evert/  six  months  ;"  "  Ercnj  hundred  years."  The  fol- 
lowing phrases  are  exceptionable  :  "  Let  eacli  esteem  others  better  than 
themselves  ;"  it  ought  to  be,  "  himself."  "  The  language  should  be  both 
perspicuous  and  correct  :  in  proportion  as  either  of  these  two  qualities  are 
wanting,  die  language  is  imperfect ;"  it  should  be,  "  is  wanting."     "  Every 

(1.)  Note  1,  p.  139.  (2.)  662.  (3.)  407.     Rule  VI.  (4.)  Adverb. 

6.)  Uule  XI.  407. 


one  of  the  letters  bear  regular  dates,  and  contain  proofs  of  altacliniBnt  ;• 
"  bears  a  regular  date,  and  contains."  "  Evenj  town  and  village  wort, 
burned ;  evenj  grove  and  every  tree  wore  cut  down ;"  "  ^vas  burned,  and 
icas  cut  down." 

Either  is  often  iist-d  imnroperly,  instead  of  each  ;  as,  "  The  king  of  Is- 
jael,  and  Jehoshaplial  the  kiiijj  of  Judah,  sat  either  o(  \\\cm  on  iiis  tTirono;" 
'Nadab  and  Abiliu,  tlic  sons  of  Aaron,  took  either  of  ihcm  iiis  censer." 
Each  signifies  both  of  them  taken  distinctly  or  separately  ;  eitlitr  properly 
signifies  only  the  one  or  the  other  of  them,  taken  disjunctive!}'. 

"  The  king  of  Israel,  and  Jchoshaphat  Ihe  king  of  Judah,  sal  either  of 
them  on  theu:  throne."     Will  you  correct  this,  and  give  tlie  rule  for  it  ? 

3. 

"  Each  of  them,  in  their  (1.)  turn,  is  productive  of  much  (7.)  in- 

receive  the  benefits  to  which  ward  joy  or  bitterness." 

they  are  entitled."  "  Whatever   (8.)    he   undertakes, 

"  My  counsel  to  each  of  you  is,  either  (!).)    his    pride    or    his 

that  1J0U  (2.)  should  make  it  folly  disgust  us." 

your  endeavor  to  come  to  a  "  Every  man  and  every  woman 

friendly  agreement."  were  numbered." 

"  By  discussing  what  (3.)  relates  "  Neither  of  those  men  seem    to 

to   each    particular,   in    their  have  any  idea  that  their  opin- 

order,  we  shall  better  under-  ions  may  be  ill  foimded." 

stand  the  subject."  "  When  benignity  and  gentleness 

"  Every  person,  whatever  (4.)  be  reign  within,  (7.)  we  are  a] 

ihei'r   station,  (5.)   are  bound  ways  (7.)  least  (7.)   in  hazard 

by  the  duties  of  morality  and  from  without :  (10.)  every  per- 

religion."  son  and  every  occurrence  are 

**  Every   leaf,    every    twig,    (6.)  beheld  in  the  most  favorable 

every   drop    of   water,    teem  light." 

with  life."  "  On  either  side  of  the  river  was 

"  Every  man's  heart  and  temper  there  the  tree  of  life." 

4.  Adjectives  are  sometimes  improperly  applied  as  adverbs  ;  as,  "  Indifler- 
ent  honest  ;  excellent  well ;  miserable  poor  ;''  instead  of  ''  Indifferently  hon- 
est ;  excellently  well  ;  miserably  poor."  "  He  behaved  himself  conformable 
to  that  great  example  ;"  "  conformably."  "  Endeavor  to  live  hereafter  suita- 
ble to  a  person  in  thy  station  ;''  "  suitably."  "  I  can  never  think  so  very  mean 
of  him  ;"  "  meanly."  "  He  describes  this  river  agreeable  to  the  common  read- 
inw ;"  "  agreeably."  "  Agreeable  to  my  promise,  I  now  write  ;"  "  agreeably." 
"  ^hy  exceeding  great  reward  ;"  when  united  to  an  adjective,  or  adverb  no' 
ending  in  h/,  the  word  exceedhig  has  ly  added  to  it ;  as,  "  exceedingly  dread 
fd,  exceedingly  great ;"  "  exceedingly  well,  exceedingly  more  active  :"  but 
when  it  is  joined  to  an  adverb  or  adjective,  having  that  termination,  the  ly  is 
emitted ;  as,  "  Some  men  think  exceeding  clearly,  and  reason  exceeding  forci- 
bly ;"  "  She  appeared,  on  this  occasion,  exceeding  lovely." — "  He  acted  in 
this  business  bolder  than  was  expected."    "  They  behaved  the  noblest,  because 


"  saw  trees  so  large."  When  we  refer  to  the  species  or  nature  of  a  thing,  the 
word  such  is  properly  applied  ;  as,  "  Such  a  temper  is  seldom  found  :"  but 
when  degree  is  signified,  we  use  the  word  so ;  as,  ''  So  bad  a  temper  is  seldom 
found." 

Adverbs  are  likewise  improperly  used  as  adjectives  ;    as,  "  The  tutor  ad- 
dressed him  in  terms  rather  warm,  but  suitably  to  his  offence ;"    "  suitabU." 

(1.)  "  his."  (2.)  "  he."  (3.)  437.  (4.)  Rule  XV.  (5.)  Rule  VI. 

(6.)  Rule  XI.  (7.)  Adverb.  (8.)  Rule  VIII.  (9.)  659.  (10.)  "from 

toithvut,"  i.  e.  "  externally.'"  589. 


142  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

"They  were  seen  wandering  about  solitarily  and  distressed;"  "solitary." 
"  He  lived  in  a  manner  agreeably  to  the  dictates  of  reeison  and  religion ;" 
"  agreeable."  "  The  bludy  of  syntax  should  be  previously  to  that  of  punclua> 
tion  ;"  "  previous." 

Young  persons  who  study  grammar,  find  it  difficult  to  decide,  in  particular 
constructions,  wlielher  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb,  ouglit  to  be  used.  A  few 
observations  on  this  point,  may  sej"\  c  to  inform  their  judgment,  and  direct  their 
detenuiuation.  They  should  carefully  attend  to  the  defuiitionsof  the  adjective 
and  the  adverb  ;  and  considci  whether,  in  the  case  in  question,  quality  or  man- 
ner is  indicated.  In  the  former  case,  an  adjective  is  proper ;  in  the  latter,  an 
adverb.  A  number  of  examples  will  illustrate  this  direction,  and  prove  useful 
on  other  occasions. 

"  Slie  looks  cold — She  looks  coldly  on  him." 
"  He  feels  warm — Ho  feels  warmly  the  insult  offered  to  him." 
"  He  became  sincere  and  virtuous — He  became  sincerely  virtuous." 
"  She  lives  free  from  care — He  lives  freely  at  another's  expense." 
"  Harriet  always  appears  neat — She  dresses  neatly.'" 

"  Charles  has  grown  great  by  his  wisdoni— He  has  grown  greatly  in  reputa- 
tion." 

"  They  now  appear  happy— They  now  appear  happily  in  earnest." 
"  The  staienienl  seems  exact — The  statement  seems  exactly  in  point." 
The  verb  to  be,  in  all  its  moods  and  tenses,  generally  requires  the  word  im- 
.itely  connc"'"-'  with  it  to  be  an  adjective,  not  an  adverb  ;  and  conse- 
«4uently,  when  this  verb  can  be  substituted  for  any  other,  without  varying  the 
sense  or  the  construction,  (hat  other  verb  must  also  be  connected  with  an  ad- 
jective. The  Ibllow  ing  sentences  elucidate  these  observations  :  "  This  is 
agreeable  to  our  iiueresl."  ■'  That  behavior  was  not  suitable  to  his  station." 
"  Rules  shiinld  be  conformable  to  sense."  "  The  rose  smells  [is]  sweet." 
"How  sweet  the  hay  smells  [is] !"  "How  deliglitful  the  country  appears 
[is]  I"  "  How  pleasant  the  fields  look  [are]  I"  "  The  clouds  look  [are]  dark." 
"  How  black  the  sky  looked  [was]  1''  •'  The  apple  tastes  [is]  sour  I"  "  How 
bitter  the  plums  tasted  [were]  I"  "  He  feels  [is]  hap|)y."  In  all  these  sen- 
tences, we  can.  with  perfect  propriety,  substitute  some  lenses  of  the  verb  to  be, 
for  the  other  verbs.  But  in  the  fcllovvlng  sentences  we  caiuiot  do  this  :  "  The 
dog  smells  disagreeahl}'."  ''  George  feels  exquisitely."  "  How  pleasantly 
she  looks  at  us  I" 

'["lie  directions  contained  in  this  Note  are  oiTcrcd  as  useful,  not  as  complete 
and  unexceptionable.  Anomalies  in  language  every  where  encounter  us  3  but 
we  must  not  reject  rules,  because  they  are  attended  with  exceptions. 

Why  is  "  inditferent  honest"  an  incorrect  expression  ?  Do  we  say,  "  ex- 
oeeding  dreadful,"  and  "exceeding  great"?  What,  then,  do  we  use  in  the 
placi'  of  exceed irip^  ?  When,  then,  do  we  use  exceedingly  ?  AV'lien  exceeding  ? 
"  The  itilor  addressed  him  in  terms  rather  warm,  but  suitably  to  his  ott'ence." 
Why  is  this  sentence  wrong  ?  Correct  it.  How  can  we  telf  whether  an  ad- 
jective or  an  adverb  otiglit  to  be  used  ?  Which  do  we  use,  when  quality  is 
uidicated  ?  Which,  when  manner  is  indii  atcd  ?  Which  does  the  verb  to  be 
generally  require  to  lie  coniieeled  with  it.  the  adjective  or  adverb?  To  illus- 
trate the  distinct  and  proper  use  of  hoih  the  adver!)  and  adjective,  I  will  give 
you  some  examples.  WoukI  you  then  sa^'.  "  He  is  diligently  and  atlentive- 
1\  ."  or  "  dili.-eiit  and  aileiitive"?  "  She  will  be  happy,"  or  "happily"? 
"  He  looks  col  !,"  or  ''  colilv"  ?  "  She  looks  cold  on  him."  Can  we  use  i* 
for  liiitka  and  make  seii!;e  ?  Would  you,  then,  say,  "  .She  looks  cold  on  him," 
or  "  coldly  nil  him  "  ?  "  She  lives  freely  [is]  from  care"  ?  Why?  "  He  lives 
free  a't  another's  expense"  ?  "  He  fi?e[s  warnilv"  ?  "  He  feels  warm  the  in- 
sult offereil  li:ni''  ?  "  He  became  sincerely  and  virtuously"  ?  "  He  became 
siiicr'r-  virtuous"  ?  Why  /  "  flarr'ct  alvvavs  appears  neatly — She  dresses 
nc;u"  ?  "Charles  has  grown  ^■reat  li\  hit  wis<loin — He  is  grown  great  in  his 
repiiiatioii"  ?  "They  now  appt^r  liappilv — They  now  appear  happy  in 
earnest'  ?  "  The  sialement  >-e"m>  vxtutlv — The  statement  seems  exact  in 
pt/nit'"  .'  "  How  sweellv  the  liav  si  t'ls  I''  ?  "  How  delightful  the  country 
apiiears!"?  "  How  pleasant  the  fieU  '«ok  1"  ?  "  The  clouds  look  darkly"  ? 
"  The  apples  taste  sourly"  7 


SYNTAX. 


143 


"  Sk  .As  proper,   writes   very 

noi..,  and  composes  iimirnlp." 

"  He  was  crtreiuc  prodigal,  and 
liiii  property  is  now  near  ex- 
hausted." 

"  They  generally  succeeded  ;  for 
they  lived  ronfonnablc  to  the 
rulea  of  prudence." 

"  We  n\Ky  reason  very  clear  and 
exceeding  strong,  without 
knowing  that  there  is  sucli  a 
thing  as  a  syllogism." 

"  He  had  many  virtues,  and  was 
f.zccrili.n<^'  bc^ured.' ' 

"  Th«  ampiitaliun  was  exceeding 
well  performed,  and  saved  tlie 
patient's  life." 

"  He  came  agreeable  to  his  prom- 
ise, and  conducted  himself 
suitable  to  the  occasion." 

"  He  speaks  very  fluent,  reads 
excellent,  but  does  not  think 
very  coherent.  ' 

•'  He  behaved  himself  submissive, 
and  was  exce(>ding  careful 
not  to  give  (1.)  offence." 

"  They  rejected  the  advice,  and 
conducted  themselves  excued- 
ingly  indiscreetly." 

"  He  is  a  person  of  great  abilities, 
and  ercccding  upright ;  and 
is  like  to  be  a  very  useful 
member  (2.)  of  the  commu- 
nity." 


'  The  conspiracy  v.'ns  the  easier 
(.'5.)  discovered,  from  its  (4.) 
being  known  (Jy.)  to  many." 

Not  being  fully  ac<juainte<i  with 
the  sul)ject,  he  could  affirm, 
no  stronger  (<i.)  than  he  did." 

He  was  so  deeply  impressed 
with  the  subject,  that  few 
could   speak   nobler  up<jn  it." 

We  may  credit  his  testimony, 
for  he  says  express,  that  lie 
saw  the  transaction." 

Use  a  little  wine  for  thy  stom- 
ach's sake,  and  thine  often 
(7.)  infirmities." 

From  these  favorable  begin- 
nings, we  may  hope  for  a 
soon  (1^.)  and  prosperous  is- 
sue." 

He  addressed  several  exhorta- 
tions to  them  suitably  to  th«ir 
circumstances." 

Contbrmably  to  their  velie- 
mence  of  thought,  was  their 
vehemence  of  gesture." 

We  should  implant  in  the  minds 
of  yoiith  such  seeds  and  prin- 
ciples of  piety  and  virtue,  as 
(H.)  are  likely  to  take  soonest 
and  deepest  root." 

Such  (10.)  an  amiable  disposi- 
tion will  secvire  universal  re- 
gard." 

Such  distinguished  virtues  sel- 
dom occur." 


5.  Doulile  roinparativos  aiul  superlatives  should  be  avoided  ;  such  as  "  a 
worscr  coiidun  ;''  '•'  on  lesser  hopes  ;"  "  a  more  serener  temper  ,"  "  ihe  most 
slrailest  sect;"  "a  more  superior  work."  They  should  be,  "worse  con- 
duct ;"  "  less  liopes  ;"  "  a  more  serene  temper;"  "  tlie  straitest  sect ;"  "  a  su- 
perior work." 


"  A  worscr  conduct." 
for  it  ? 


Will  you  correct  this  senleuce,  and  giv«  the  Rule 


"  'Tis  more  easier  to  build  two 
chimneys  than  to  maintain 
one." 

"  The  tongue  is  lik«  (11.)  a  race- 
horse, (12.)  whieli  runs  the 
faster  (13.)  the  /caj.t  weiglit 
it  carries." 


The  pleasures  of  the  under- 
standing are  inore  preferuhle 
than  (14.)  those  of  the  imagi- 
nation, or  of  sense." 

The  nightingale  sings  :  hers  is 
the  most  sweetest  voice  in  the 
grove." 


(1.)  nub  XII.  (2.)  Rule  XV.  (,3.)  "  more  easily."  (4.)  Rule  I 

(5.)  "  6ci"i'  /.Juijc'i" — p.iiticipial  noun.  (6.)  "not  affirm  mere  strongly." 

[7.)"  thy  freijuent."  (8.)  "  speedy."  (9.)  CiC.  (10.)  "  A  disposition 

$0  amiable  "  ice.    Sec  tlic  Note,  a  few  lineB  before  tho  close.  (11.)  Rule  IV. 

112.)  Rule  X.— Note  XVH.  647.  (13.)  599.  (14.)  "prrferaOl*  to." 


144  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

"  The  Most  Highest  liatli  created    ''  The  Supreme  Being  is  the  most 
us  for  his  glory,  and  for  our  wisest,  and  most  powerfuUest, 

own  happiness.  '  and  the  most  best  of  beings  " 

6.  Adjectives  that  have  in  themselvw  a  superlative  signification,  do  not 
properly  admit  of  the  superlative  or  comparative  form  superadded  ;  such  as 
chief,  extreme,  perfect,  right,  universal,  supreme,  &c. ;  which  are  sometimes 
improperly  written  chiefcst,  extremest,  perfeciest,  rishtest,  most  universal,  most 
supreme,  &c.  The  following  expressions  are,  therefore,  improper  :  "  He 
sometimes  claims  admission  to  the  chiefcst  offices."  "  The  quarrel  became  so 
universal  and  national."  "  A  method  of  attaining  the  Tightest  and  greatest 
happiness."  The  phrases  "  so  perfect,"  "  so  right,"  "  so  extreme,"  "  so  uni- 
versal," &c.,  are  incorrect;  because  they  imply  that  one  thing  is  less  perfect, 
less  extreme,  (Sec,  than  another,  which  is  not  possible. 

Is  it  proper  to  say,  "  The  most  perfect  work  "  1     Why  net  ? 

6. 

"  Virtue  confers  iAe5M/>re?ne5f  (1.)  "His  work   is   perfect ;  (4.)    his 

dignity  on  man  ;  and  should  brother's,  more  perfect ;    and 

be  his  chiefest  desire."  his  father's,  the  most  perfect 

"  His  assertion  was  more  true  (2.)  of  all." 

than    that   of  his    opponent ;  "  He  gave   the   fullest  and  most 

nay,  the  words  of  the   latter  sincere    proof  of    the    truest 

were  most  untrue."  (3.)  friendship." 

7.  Inaccuracies  are  often  found  in  the  way  in  which  the  degrees  of  com- 
parison are  applied  and  construed.  The  following  are  examples  of  wrong 
construction  in  this  respect :  "  This  noble  nation  hath,  of  all  others,  admit- 
ted fewer  corruptions."  The  word  fewer  is  here  construed  precisely  as  if 
it  Were  the  superlative.  It  should  be,  "  This  noble  nation  hath  admitted 
fewer  corruptions  than  any  other."  We  commonly  say,  "  This  is  the  weak- 
er of  the  two,"  or,  "  the  weakest  of  the  two ;"  but  the  fonncr  is  the  regu- 
lar mode  of  expression,  because  there  are  only  two  things  compared.  "'The 
vice  of  covetousness  is  what  enters  deepest  into  the  soul  of  any  other." 
"  He  celebrates  the  church  of  England  as  the  most  perfect  of  all  others." 
Both  these  modes  of  expression  are  faulty:  we  should  not  say,  "the  best 
of  any  man,"  or  "  the  best  of  any  other  man,"  for  "  ihe  best  of  men." 
The  sentences  may  be  corrected  by  substituting  the  comparative  in  the 
room  of  the  superlative :  "  The  vice,  &c.,  is  \vnat  enters  deeper  into  the 
soul  than  any  other."  "He  celebrates,  &c.,  as  more  perfect  than  any  oth- 
er." It  is  alsc  possible  to  retain  the  superlative,  and  render  the  expression 
grammatical  ;  "  Covetousness,  of  all  vices,  enters  the  deepest  into  the  soul." 
''  He  celebrates.  &c.,  as  the  most  perfect  of  all  churches."  These  sen- 
tences contain  other  errors,  against  which  it  is  proper  to  caution  the  learner. 
The  words  deeper  and  deepest,  being  intended  for  adverbs,  should  have 
been  more  deeply,  most  deeply.  The  phrases  more  perfect  and  mcst  perfect 
are  improper  ;  because  perfection  adm'ts  of  no  degrees  of  comparison. 
We  may  say,  nearer  or  nearest  to  perfection,  or  more  or  less  imperfect. 

In  speaking  of  two  persons,  should  we  say,  "  The  weaker  of  the  two," 
oT  "  The  weakest  of  the  two  "  ?     Why  ? 

7. 

"  A    talent   of  this    kind   would,     "  He    spoke   with   so  much    pro- 

perliaps.    prove    the    likeliest  priety,  that  1  understood  Ijim 

of  any  other  (o.)  to  succeed."  the  best  of  all  the  others  (6.) 

"  He  is  the  strongest  of  the  two,  tnho  spoke  on  the  subject.'' 

but  not  the  wisest."  "  Eve   was  the  fairest  of  all  hei 

daughters." 

I  I .    "  t.'if  "iiiirpinrjsf — ,«w.j(r«m«."  (2.)  "  better  fminded."  (3.)  "  not  trug.' 

'      •  ■r',11  f^truuit—tUU  hetter^but."  (6.)  "ell."  {6.) '^  tf  all  loha  * 


SYNTAX.  145 

8.  In  some  cases,  adjoclivcs  should  not  be  separated  from  their  substan- 
tives, even  by  words  wliich  modify  their  mcauiiiL',  and  make  but  one  sense 
with  liiem  ,  as,  "  A  large  enoiioh  number,  surely.  It  should  be,  "  A  number 
large  enough."  "  The  lower  sort  of  people  are  good  enough  judges  of  one 
not  very  distant  from  them." 

The  adjective  is  usually  placed  before  its  substantive  ;  as,  "  A  genermit 
man}"  "  IIow  amiable  a  woman  !"  Tiie  instances  in  which  it  comes  after  the 
substantive,  are  the  following': 

1st.  When  something  depends  upon  the  adjective  ;  and  when  it  gives  abet- 
ter sound,  especially  in  poclry ;  as,  "  A  man  generous  to  his  enemies  ;"  "  Feed 
me  with  food  cortre/n>/ii  for  me;"  "A  tree  three  feet  thic/c ;"  "  A  body  of 
troops  fifty  thousand  strong ;"    "  The  torrent  tumbling  through  rocks  abrupt." 

2d.  When  the  adjective  is  eni|)hatioal ;  as,  "Alexander  the  Great;" 
''  Lewis  the  Bold  ;"  "  Cioodness  iiifniile  ;"  "  Wisdom  ansea reliable." 

3d.  Wlieii  several  adjectives  belong  to  one  substaniive;  as,  "  A  man  just, 
wise,  and  charitable  ;"  '•  A  woman  modest,  sensible,  and  virtuous." 

4ih.  When  the  adjective  is  preceded  Ijy  an  adverb  ;  as,  "  A  boy  regularly 
studious  ;'■'  '•  A  girl  unallccledly  modest.'" 

6lh.  When  the  verb  to  be,  in  any  of  its  variations,  comes  between  a  sub- 
stantive and  an  adjective,  the  adjective  may  frequently  cither  precede  or  fol- 
low it ;  as,  '•  The  man  is  happij,"  or,  "  Hl.pf.ii  is  ihe  man,  who  makes  virtue 
his  choice  :"  "  The  interview  was  ddi^hlfiil ,"  or,  '•  DeliglUf'd  was  the  inter- 
view." 

Glh.  When  the  adjective  c.\pre.ises  some  circumstance  of  a  substantive 
placed  afier  an  active  verb  ;,  as,  "  Vanity  often  renders  its  possessor  despica- 
ble." In  an  exclamatory  sentence,  the  adjective  generally  precedes  the  sub- 
staiUive ;  as,  '•  How  drst'icable  does  vanity  often  render  its  possessor!" 

There  is  sometimes  greal  beauty,  as  well  as  force,  in  placing  the  adjective 
before  the  verb,  and  the  substantive  inunediatcly  after  it  ;  as,  "  Great  is  the 
Lord  I    just  and  true  are  thy  ways,  thou  King  of  saints  !" 

Sometimes  the  word  all  is  emphatically  put  after  a  luunbcr  of  particulars 
comprehended  under  it.  "  Ambition,  interest,  honor,  all  concurred."  Some- 
times a  substantive,  wliich  likewise  coni])rehcnds  the  preceding  particulars,  is 
used  in  conjunction  with  this  adjective  ;  as,  ••  Royalists,  republicans,  church- 
men, sectaries,  courtiers,  all  parlies^  concurred  in  the  illusion." 

An  adjective  pronoun,  in  the  plural  number,  will  sometimes  properly  asso- 
ciate with  a  singular  noun  ;  as,  "  Our  desire,  3'our  intention,  their  resignation." 
This  association  ajiplies  rather  to  things  of  an  intellectual  nature,  than  to  thoso 
which  are  corporeal.     It  (brms  an  exception  to  the  general  rule. 

A  substantive  with  its  adjective  is  reckoned  as  one  compounded  word  ; 
whence  ihcv  often  take  anotlier  adjective,  and  sometimes  a  tliird,  and  so  on  ; 
as,  "  An  ok!  man  ;  a  good  old.  man  ;  a  very  learned,  judicious,  good  old  man." 

Though  the  adjective  always  relates  to  a  substantive,  it  is,  in  many  in- 
stances, put  as  if  it  were  absolute  ;  especially  where  the  noun  has  been  men 
tioned  before,  or  easily  understood,  though  not  expressed }  as,  "  I  ot'ten  sur 
vey  it." 

Is  it  correct  to  say,  "  A  large  enough  number"  ?  How  should  it  be  alter 
ed  ?  What  is  the  Psfote  for  it  ?  Should  the  adjective  be  placed  usually  before, 
or  after  the  noun  ? 

8. 

"  He  spoke  in  a  distinct  enottgh  pair  of  gloves :  he  is  tlie  ser- 

manner  to  be    heard    by  the  vant  of  an  old  rich  (2.)  man." 

whole  assembly."  "  The  trco  first  (3.)  in  the  row  are 

'  Thomas  is  equipped  with  a  new  cherry-trees,    the_   two   others 

(1.)  pair  of  shoes,  and  a  new  are  pear-trees." 

a.)  "  apair  of  neio  shots."        (2.)  "  rich  old."        (3.)  Nolo  I.— Ruin  VI. 

13 


i46  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

X^UZiS    II. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE   IX. 

The  indefinite  article,  a  or  an,  belongs  to  nouns  of  the 
singular  number. 

iiur<i:  III. 

TTie  definite  article,  the,  belongs  to  nouns  of  the  singu- 
lar or  plural  numbers. 

The  articles  are  often  properly  omitted  :  wlien  used,  they  should  be  justly 
applied,  according  to  llicir  distinct  nature  ;  as,  "Gold  is  corrupting;  the  sea 
is  green  ;  a  lion  i-i  bold." 

It  is  the  nature  of  both  the  articles  to  determine  or  limit  the  thinff  spoken  of. 
A  determines  it  to  be  one  single  thing  of  the  kind,  leaving  it  stiTl  uncertain 
which  ;  thfi  determines  which  it  is,  or,  if  many,  which  Ihi-y  are. 

The  following  passage  will  serve  as  an  example  of  ihc  dificrent  uses  of  a 
and  the,  and  o(  the  force  of  the  substantive  widioul  any  article  :  "  il/n/t  was 
made  for  socicl}',  and  ought  to  extend  his  good  will  to  all  men  ;  but  a  man  will 
naturally  entertain  a  more  particular  kiiidiicss  for  tlf  v.en  with  whom  he  has 
the  most  frequent  intercourse  ;  and  enter  into  a  sliil  cIomt  union  with  the.  man 
whose  temper  and  disposition  suit  best  with  his  own.'' 

As  the  articles  are  sometimes  misapplied  it  may  l>c  of  snine  use  to  exhibit 
a  few  instances  :  "  And  1  p-ersecutcd  this  way  unto  the  death."  The  apostle 
does  not  mean  any  particular  sort  of  death,  but  death  in  general  :  the  definite 
article,  therefore,  is  improi)erly  used  :  it  oitght  to  be,  "  unto  death,"  without 
any  article. 

"  y/hen  he,  the  Spirit  of  truth,  is  come,  he  will  guide  you  into  all  truth  ;" 
that  is,  accordiiig  to  this  translation,  "into  all  iriilh  whatsoever,  into  truth  of 
all  kinds  ;" — verj^  difl'ercnt  from  the  meaning  of  the  evangelist,  and  from  the 
original,  "into  all  ihe  iruiii -,"'  that  is,  "into  all  evangelical  truth,  all  truth 
necessary  for  j'ou  to  know." 

"  Who  breaks  a  omienly  upon  a  wheel  ?"  it  otsght  to  he  "  the  wheel,"  used 
as  an  instniment  for  the  particular  purpose  of  torturing  criminals.  "  The  Al- 
mighty hath  given  reason  to  <(  man  to  be  a  light  unto  him  :"  it  should  rather 
be,  "  to  Hiuw,"  in  general.  "  This  day  is  salvation  c<;n)e  to  this  house,  for- 
asmuch as  he  also  is  the  son  of  Abraham  ;"'  it  ought  to  be,  "a  son  of  Abra- 
ham." 

These  remarks  may  serve  to  show  the  great  imp.crtance  of  ll.p  proper  use 
of  the  article,  and  the  excellence  of  the"  i-^nglish  lang'jagc  in  this  respect; 
which,  fcy  meaits  of  its  two  articles,  does  most  precisely  <letermh)c  tlic  extent 
of  signification  of  common  names. 

Wliat  is  the  nature  of  the  articles  ?  What  does  the  article  a  determine  ? 
What  the  article  tlie  ? 

Tlie  fixf,  the  air,  the  earth,  and,  "  (4.)  Wisest  and  best  men  snine- 

the   water,  are   four  elements  tiiiies  couiiiiit  errors." 

(1.)  of  the  pliiloscpheis.  '  '•  Beware  of  drunkenness  :   it  im- 

*'  Reason  was  g-ivcn   tr)  a  nian  to  pairf  Linderstanding  ;    wastes 

control  his  passions."  an  estate  ;   destroys  a  reputa- 

We  have   within  us  an  intdli-  tion;  consumes  the  body ;  and 

gent  principle,  distinct  from  renders  the  (5.)   man  of  the 

(2.)  body  and  from  matter.  briofhtcst   parts'  the  (5.)  com- 

A  man   is  the  noblest  work   of  mon  jest  (G.)  of  the  meanest 

(3.)  creation  clown." 

(l)"Fire    air      &c "  the  four,"  &c  (2.)  "  (Ae  'jody."  ifl.)  "  tht 

•reatioB  '  ,4..      Tie  wiiest  "  ^5.)"o."  (6.)  Itul*  XV. 


SYNTAX. 


147 


''  He  is  a  much  better  writer  IIkiii 

a  reader." 
"  Tlw.  king  has  conferred  on  iii-n 

tlie  title  of  a  duke." 
''  There    are    some    evils    of    life 

which  equally    afleut    prince 

and  people." 
'•  We   must  act  our  part  with   a 

constancy,  thongh   reward  ui' 

our  constancy  be  (I.)  distant." 
''  We  are  placed  hereunder  a  trial 

of  our  virtue." 
"  The    virtues    like    his    are    not 

easily  acquired.     Sucli  ([uali- 

ties    iionor    tlie    u;iture    of  a 

man." 

1.  A  nice  clistiuclloii  of  tlie  sense  i.s  sometimes  made  by  the  use  o«  amis- 
sion of  ilie  ariicle  a.  ii  1  say,  "  He  behaved  with  a  litde  revereiicf  "  my 
meaning  is  positive,  it  [  say,  "  He  behaved  with  little  reverence,"  my  <o*n- 
iiii^  is  nt'j^ative.  And  llie-e  Hvo  are  by  no  means  the  same,  or  to  be  i  .r-^d  in 
the  same  cases.  By  liic  former,  !  rather  praise  a  person ;  by  the  lalter  J  iia- 
praise  iiim.  For  the  sake  of  this  distinction,  which  is  a  very  useful  o  f,  wo 
may  better  'oear  the  sei'r.iiiig  impropriety  oi' the  iirticlc  a  before  nouns  of  num- 
ber. When  1  say,  "  'J'liere  were  few  men  with  him,"  I  speak  diminu  vely, 
and  mean  to  represent  iheai  as  inconsiderable  :  whereas,  when  I  say,  "  There 
were  a  few  men  with  him,"  I  evidently  hitend  to  make  the  most  of  them. 

What  is  the  dlfi'erenee  in  meaning'  betw  een  the  expressions  "  We  betaved 
with  a  little  reverence,"  and  "  We  behaved  with  little  reverence  "  ? 


"  Purity  lias  its  seat  in  the  heart, 
but  extends  its  influence  over 
so  iiujcJi  of  outward  conduct, 
as  to  form  the  great  and  ma- 
terial part  of  a  character." 

"  The  protiitrate  mait  is  .seldom  or 
nev(;r  i'ound  to  be  the  good 
husband,  the  good  father,  or 
tJie  bcrietieent  neighbor." 

"  True  charity  is  not  the  meteor 
v.'liich  occasionally  glares,  but 
the  luminary  winch,  in  its 
orderly  and  regular  course, 
dispenses  benignant  i  ifia- 
eiice." 


I. 


"  He  has  been  much  censured  for 
conducting  himself  with  a  ht- 
tle  attention  to  his  business." 

"  So  bold  a  breach  of  order  called 
for  (2.)  little  severity  in  pun- 
ishing the  offender." 

"  His  error  wasacconijianied  with 
so  little  contrition  and  can- 
did ackiiovv'ledg.nent,  lliat  he 
found  a  few  persons  to  inter- 
cede for  him." 


There  were  so  many  mitigating 
(3.)  circumstances  attending 
liis  misconduct,  particularly 
tliat  (4.)  of  his  open  confes- 
sion, tiiat  he  found  (5.)  few 
friends  who  were  disposed  to 
inteipst  themselves  in  his  fa- 


vor. 
As    his 


misfortunes    were    the 
fruit  of  his  own  obstinacy,  a 

few  persons  pitied  him  " 


2.  In  general,  it  may  be  sunicicnt  to  prefix  the  article  to  the  former  of  two 
words  in  the  same  construction  ;  though  the  French  never  fail  to  repeat  it  in 
this  case.  "  There  were  man}'  hours,  both  of  the  night  iud  day,  which  he 
could  spend,  without  suspicion,  in  solitary  thought."  It  mig"  t  have  been  "of 
the  night  and  of  (he  day."  And,  for  the  sake  ofempluisis,  we  often  repeat  the 
article  in  a  series  of  epithets.  "'  He  hoped  that  this  tiite  would  secure  him  an 
ample  and  an  independent  authority." 

Is  the  article  to  be  repeated  before  two  words  in  the  same  construction? 


"  The  fear  of  shame,  (6.)  the  de- 
sire of  approbation,  prevent 
many  bad  actions." 

"  In  tliis  business  he  was  influ- 
enced by  a  just  and  (7.)  gen- 
erous principle." 


H*>  was  fired  with  desire  of 
doing  something,  though  he 
knew  not  yet,  witli  distinct- 
ness, either  end  or  means." 


(I.WfvI. 

Rule  XIV. 


(2.)"'/  little."  (3.)  S.VJ.  (4.)  "  iliai  ctrci(ini«(irtce. "Note  I.— 

(5  )  "  a  few."  S.W.  (6.)  "  and  llio."  (7.)  "  a  gen»rou«." 


48  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

3.  In  common  conversation,  and  in  familiar  slj-Ie,  we  frequently  omit  the 
articles,  which  might  be  inserted  with  propriel}' in  writing,  especially  in  a  grave 
style.  "  At  worst,  time  might  be  gained  by  this  expedient."  "  At  i/ie  worst" 
would  have  Ijeen  better  in  this  place.  '•  Give  me  here  John  Baptist's  head." 
There  would  have  been  more  dignity  in  saying,  "John  the  Baptist's  head;" 
or,  "  The  head  of  John  the  Baptist." 

The  article  llie  has  sometimes  a  good  effect  in  distingiiisiiing  a  person  by 
an  epilliet.  ''  Ju  tlie  history  of  llenr^'  the  Fourth,  by  Father  Daniel,  we  are 
surprised  at  not  fnullng  liim  the  great  man."  "  I  own  I  am  often  surprised  that 
he  should  have  treated  so  coldly  a  man  so  much  /he  gentleman." 

This  article  is  often  elegantly  put,  after  the  manner  of  the  Frencn,  for  the 
pronoun  possessive  ;  as,  "He  looks  him  full  in  ilie  i'dce  ;"  tliat  is,  "in  his 
face."  "  In  his  presence  they  were  to  strike  the  forehead  on  the  ground ;" 
that  is,  "  their  foreheads." 

We  sometimes,  according  to  die  French  manner,  repeat  the  same  article, 
when  the  adjective,  on  account  of  any  clause  depending  upon  it,  is  put  after 
the  substantive.  "  Of  all  the  considerable  governments  among  the  Alps,  a 
commonwealth  is  a  constitution  the  most  adapted  of  any  to  the  poverty  of 
those  countries."  "  With  such  a  specious  title  as  that  of  blood,  which,  with 
the  mullitude,  is  always  a  claim  the  strongest,  and  the  most  easily  compre- 
hended." "  They  are  not  the  men  in  the  nation  the  most  difficult  to  be  r» 
placed." 

"  At  worst,  lime  might  be  gained,"  &c.  What  word  may  properly  bb 
inserted  in  the  beginning  of  this  sentence  ?  What  is  the  Note  for  it  ? 

3. 

•'  At  worst  I  could  but   incur  a    "  At  best,  his  gift  was  but  a  poor 
gentle  reprimand."  offering,  when   we   consider 

his  estate." 

SlULS    I. 

Corres[]Otnling  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE   X. 

The  possessive  case  is  governed  hy  the  following  noun. 

When  the  annexed  sulistanllve  sign-ines  the  same  thing  as  the  first,  there  is 
no  variation  of  case  ;  a.*,  "  George,  king  of  Great  Britain,  elector  of  Hano- 
ver," &c.  ;  •'  I'ompey  contended  with  Caesar,  the  greatest  general  of  his 
time  ;"  "  Religion,  the  support  of  adversity,  adorns  prosperity.  Nomis  thus 
circumstanced  are  said  to  be  in  apposition  to  each  other.  The  interposition 
of  a  relative  and  verb  will  sometimes  break  the  construction:  as,  "  Pompey 
contended  with  Caesar,  u-ho  was  the  greatest  general  of  his  time."  Here  the 
word  general  is  in  the  nominative  case,  according  to  Rule  XV.,  or  Note  4, 
under  Rule  VIIJ. 

The  preposition  of,  joined  to  a  substantive,  is  not  always  equivalent  to  the 
possessive  case.  It  is  only  so,  when  the  expression  can  be  converted  into  the 
Tegular  form  of  the  possessive  case.  We  can  say,  "  the  reward  of  virtue," 
and  "  virtue's  reward  ;"  but  though  it  is  proper  to  saj',  "  a  crown  of  gold," 
we  cannot  convert  the  expression  hito  the  possessive  case,  and  say,  "  gold's 
crown." 

Substantives  govern  prraiouns  as  well  as  nouns,  in  the  possessive  case  ;  as, 
"  Every  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit;"  "  Goodness  brings  its  reward  ;"  "  "That 
desk  is  mine." 

The  genitive  (1.)  its  is  often  improperly  used  for  'tis  or  it  is ;  as,  "  Its  my 
book  ;"  instead  of  "It  is  my  book." 

The  prenoim  his,  when  detached  from  the  noun  to  which  it  relates,  is  to  be 
considered,  not  as  a  possessive  pronoun,  but  as  the  genitive  case  of  the  per- 
sonal pronoun  ;  as,  "  This  composition  is  his."  "  Whose  book  is  that  ?" 
*'  His."    If  we  used  the  noun  itself,  we  should  say,   "  This  composition  is 

(1.)  Or  possessive. 


SYNTAX.  ^48 

John's."  "  Whose  book  is  that  V  "  Eliza's."  The  position  will  be  still  ni^w 
evident;  when  we  consider  thai  boili  llic  pronouns  in  the  following  senipuces 
inusl  have  a  similar  construction  :  '•  Is  it  her  or  his  honor  that  is  tarnished  V 
"  It  is  not  hers,  hul  his." 

Sometimes  a  substantive  in  the  genitive  or  possessive  case  stands  alone, 
the  latter  one  by  which  it  is  governed  Ixiiig  undorslood  ;  as,  "  1  called  at  the 
bookseller's,"  that  is,  "  at  the  bookseller's  shop." 

"  Religion,  the  support  of  adversity,  adorns  prosperity."     What  is  said  of 
the  nouns  rdi^ion,  and  support,  in  respect  to  each  other  (     When  is  the  prep- 
osition o/ joined  to  a  substantive  equivalent  to  the  possessive  ciise  ?     Give  an 
example. 
"  My    ancestors     virtue     is     not     "  A    mothers    tenderness,    and    a 

mine.  '  (1.)  lathers   care  are  natures  gifla 

"  His   brothers   offence    will    not  for  luans  advantage." 

condemn  him."  "  A  mans  niannerd'  frequently  in 

"  I  will  not  destroy  the  city  for  fluence  his  fortune." 

ten  sake."  "  Wisdoms    precepts'     form    the 

"  Nevertheless,  Asa  his  heart  (^2.)  good  mans  interest  and  hap- 

was  perfect  with  the  Lord."  piness." 

"  They  slew  Varus,  he  that  was     "  They  slew  Varus,  wlio  was  him 
mentioned  before."  that  1  mentioned  before." 

1.  If  several  nouns  come  together  in  the  genitive  (3.)  case,  the  apostrophe 
with  s  is  annexed  to  the  last,  and  understood  to  the  rest ;  as,  "'  John  and  Eli- 
za's books  ;"  '•'  This  was  my  father,  mother  and  uncle's  advice."  But  when 
any  words  intervene,  perhaps  on  account  of  the  increased  pause,  the  sign  of 
the  possessive  should  be  annexed  to  each  ;  as,  "  They  are  John's  as  v/ell  as 
Eliza's  books  ;"  "  I  had  the  physician's,  the  surgeon's  and  the  apothecary's 
assistance." 

"John's  and  Eliza's  books."  Will  you  correct  this  sentence,  and  .^ive  the 
Rule  for  it  ? 

I. 
"  It  was  the  men's,  (4.)   women's     "  This  m(=-asure  gained  the  king, 
(5.)  and  children's  lot  to  suf-  as  well  as  the  people's  appro- 

fer  great  calamities."  bation." 

"  Peter's,   Johns    and    Andrew's     "  Not  only  the    counHel's  and  at 
occupation,  was  that  offish-  torney's  but  the  judge's  opin- 

ermen."  i^^n  also,  favored  his  cause." 

2.  In  poetr^',  the  additional  *•  is  frequently  omitted,  but  the  apostrophe  re- 
tained, in  the  same  maimer  as  in  substantives  of  the  plural  number  ending  in 
i-;  as,  "  The  wrath  of  Pcleus'  son."  This  seems  not  so  allowable  in  prose, 
which  the  following  erroneous  examjile  will  demonstrate  :  "  IMoses'  minister  ;" 
•■'  Phinehas'  wite  ;"  "  Festus  came  into  Felix'  room  ;''  "  Tliese  answers  were 
made  to  the  witness'  questions."  But  in  cases  which  would  give  too  miich 
of  the  hissing  sound,  or  increase  the  difliculty  of  proiiuncialion,  the  omission 
takes  place  even  in  prose  ;  as,  •'  For  righteousness'  sake;"  "  For  conscience' 
sake." 

Is  the  additional  s  ever  omitted  ?     (3ive  an  example. 
2. 
"  And  he  cast   himself  down   at     "  if  ye  suffer  f :)r  rigliteousness's 

Jesus  feet."  sake,  happy  are  ye." 

"  Moses  rod    was    turned    into    a     •'  Ye  should  be  subject  for  con 

serpent."  science's  sake." 

"  For  Herodias  sake,  his  brot'ier 
Philips  wife.'' 

(1.)  Rule  I.         (2.)  "  .'i.w's  Aeari."         (:i.)  Or  pos.«ossive.  (4.)  "  Jlfen"  is  her* 

in  the  possessive  case,  ths   apostrophe  [>rUt«  understood  ;  therefore  apply  Euls  I 
(5.)  "  Men,  women  ;"  or,  "  It  ipus  the  lot  of,"  &.T3. 

13* 


150  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR^ 

3.  Little  explanatory  circumstances  are  particularly  awkward  between  a 
renitive  case  and  the  word  which  usually  follows  it ;  as,  "  She  began  to  exto. 
me  farmer's,  as  she  called  him,  excellent  understanding."  It  ought  to  be 
"  the  excellent  understanding  of  the  farmer,  as  she  called  him." 

"  She  began  to  extol  the  farmer's,  as  slie  called  him,  excellent  understand- 
mg."     Will  you  correct  this  sentence,  and  give  the  Kide  for  it  ? 

3. 

"  They   very  justly    condemned    "  They  implicitly  obeyed  the  pro- 
tlie  prodigals,  as  he  was  call-  teeter's,  as  they  called  him 

ed,  senseless  and  extravagant  imperious  mandates." 

conduct."  (I.) 

4.  When  a  sentence  consists  of  terms  signifying  a  name  and  an  office,  or 
nf  any  expressions  by  which  one  part  is  descriptive  or  explanatory  of  the  oth- 
tr,  it  may  occasion  some  doubt  to  which  of  them  the  sign  of  the  genitive  case 
should  be  annexed  ;  or  \\  lictlior  it  should  be  subjoined  to  them  both.  Thus, 
iome  would  say,  "  I  left  the  parcel  at  Smith's  the  bookseller;"  others,  "  at 
Smith  the  bookseller's  ;"  and  perhaps  others,  "  at  Smith's  Ihe  bookseller's." 
The  first  of  these  forms  is  most  agreeable  to  the  English  idiom  ;  and  if  the 
addition  consists  of  two  or  more  words,  the  case  seems  to  be  less  dubious  ; 
as,  "  I  left  the  parcel  at  Smith's,  the  bookseller  and  stationer."  But  as  this 
subject  requires  a  little  further  explanation,  to  make  it  intelligible  to  the  learn- 
ers, we  shall  add  a  few  observations  tending  to  unfold  its  principles. 

A  phrase  in  which  the  words  are  so  connected  and  dependent,  as  to  admit 
of  no  pause  before  tlie  conclusion,  necessarily  requires  the  genitive  sign  at  or 
near  the  end  of  the  phrase  ;  as,  "  Whose  prerogative  is  it  1"  "  It  is  the  king 
of  Great  Britain's  ;"  "  Tliat  is  the  duke  of  liridgewater's  canal ;"  "  The 
bishop  of  Landaff's  excellent  book  ;"  "  The  Lord  Ulayor  of  London's  author- 
ity ;"  "  'riio  captain  of  the  guard's  house." 

When  words  in  apposition  follow  each  oilier  in  quick  succession,  it  seems 
also  most  agreeable  to  our  idiom,  to  give  the  sign  of  the  genitive  a  similar  sit- 
uation ;  especially  if  the  noun  wliich  governs  the  genitive  be  expressed  ;  as, 
"  The  emperor  Leopold's  ;"  "  Dionysius  Ihe  tj'ranl's  ;"  "  For  David  my  sci-- 
vmU's  sake  ;"  "  Giv^e  me  John  the  Bapiixt's  head  ;"  "  Paul  the  apostle's  ad- 
vice." But  when  a  pause  is  proper,  and  the  governing  noun  not  expressed  ; 
and  when  the  latter  part  of  the  sentence  is  extended  ;  it  appears  to  be  requi- 
site that  the  sign  should  be  applied  to  the  first  genitive,  and  understood  to  the 
oilier ;  as,  '•  I  reside  at  lord  Stormont's,  my  old  patron  and  benefactor ;" 
"  Whose  glory  did  he  emulate  7  He  emulated  Caesar's,  the  greatest  general 
of  antiquil}."  In  the  following  sentences,  it  would  be  very  awkward  to  place 
the  sign  either  at  the  end  of  each  of  the  clauses,  or  at  the  end  of  the  latter  one 
alone  :  "  These  psalms  arc  David's,  the  king,  priest,  and  prophet  of  the  Jew- 
ish people  ;"  "  We  staid  a  month  at  lord  Lyttleton's,  tlie  ornament  of  his  coun- 
try, and  the  friend  of  every  virtue."  The  sign  of  the  genitive  case  ma}'  very 
properly  be  understood  at  the  end  of  these  members,  an  ellipsis  at  Ihe  latter 
part  of  sentences  being  a  common  construction  in  our  language;  as  the  learn- 
er will  see  by  one  or  two  examples  :  "  They  wished  to  submit,  but  he  did 
not ;"  that  is,  "  he  did  not  wish  to  submit."  "  He  said  it  was  their  concern, 
but  not  his  ;"  that  is,  "  not  Ids  concent." 

If  we  annex  the  sign  of  the  genitive  to  the  end  of  the  last  clause  onl}',  we 
shall  perceive  that  a  res^,*^-  ilace  is  wanted,  and  that  Ihe  connecting  circum- 
stance is  placed  too  reniVjite"i5',  to  be  either  ])erspicuous  or  agreeable  ;  as, 
"  Whose  .glory  did  he  emulate  ?  He  emulated  Caesar,  the  greatest  general  oi 
anliquity's  ;"  "  These  psalms  are  David,  the  king,  priest,  and  prophet  of  the 
Jewish  people's."  It  is  much  better  to  say,  "  Ttiis  is  Paul's  advice,  the  Chris- 
tiaji  hero,  and  great  apostle  of  the  gentiles,"  than  "  This  is  Paul  the  Christian 
hero,  and  great  apostle  of  the  gentiles'  advice."  On  the  other  hand,  the  ap- 
plication of  the  genitive  sign  to  both  or  all  of  the  nouns  in  apposition,  would 
be  generally  harsh  and  displeasing,  and  perhaps  in  some  cases  incorrect :  as 
"  The  emperor's  Leopold's  ;"  "  King's  George's;"  "Charles's  the  Second's  ;*' 

(1.)  "  the  senseless,"  &c, — i-"  of  the  prodigal,  as  he  teas  callei" 


SYNTAX.  151 

"  The  parcel  was  left  at  Smith's  the  bookseller's  aiid  slalioncr's."  The  rules 
which  we  have  endeavored  to  elucidate  will  prevent  the  inconvenience  of 
both  these  modes  of  expression  ;  and  thoy  appear  to  be  simple,  perspicuous, 
and  consistent  with  tlio  idiom  of  the  language. 

Which  is  most  agreeable  (o  the  English  idiom,  to  say.  "  Smith's  the  book- 
seller," or  "  Smith  tlie  bookseller's  "  ?  When  the  words  are  connected  and 
dependent,  where  is  the  genitive  (1.)  sign  to  be  placed  ? 

When  words  in  apposition  follow  each  oilier  in  quick  succession,  where 
should  die  sign  of  the  genitive  bo  placed  ?  What  efiect  is  perceived  if  we 
annex  the  sign  of  the  genitive  to  the  end  of  the  last  clause  only  of  the  sen- 
tence ?  Give  an  example.  Wha^pis  liie  efiect  of  a)iplying  the  genitive  signi 
to  both  or  all  the  nouns  in  apposition  ?     Give  an  example. 

4. 

'•'  I    bought  the   knives  at  John-  "  I  will  not  for  David's  thy  f'ath- 

son's  (2.)  the  cutler's."  (3.)  er's  sake." 

"  The     silk    was    purchased    at  "  He  took  refuge  at  the  governor, 
Brown's    the    meixcr's     and  the  king's  representative's." 

haberdasher's."  "  Whose   (5.)    works    are   these  ? 
'  Lord    Feversham  the  general's  They   are    Cicero,    the    most 

tent."  (4.)  eloquent  of  men's." 

~"  This  palace  had  been  the  grand 
sultan's  Mahomet's." 

5.  The  English  genili\'e  has  often  an  unpleasant  sound ;  so  that  we  daily 
iisake  more  use  of  the  particle  of,  to  express  the  same  relation.  There  is 
something  awkward  in  the  following  sentences,  in  which  this  method  has  '";' 
been  taken  :  "  The  general,  in  the  army's  name,  published  a  decl-''r""°'i  5 
"  The  commons'  vote  ;"  "  The  lords'  house  ;"  "  Unless  he  i"  ■>  Pry  ignorant 
of  the  kingdom's  condition."  It  were  certainly  hoUar  to  say,  "  In  the  name 
of  the  army;"  "  The  votes  of  the  commons;"  '' The  house  of  lords ;"  "The 
condition  of  the  kingdom."  It  is  tilso  rather  harsh  to  use  two  English,  geni- 
tives Willi  the  same  substantive;  as,  "Whom  he  acquainted  with  the  pope'.s 
and  the  king's  pleasure."  "  The  pleasure  of  the  pope  and  the  king,"  would 
have  been  better. 

We  sometimes  meet  with  three  substantives  dependent  on  one  another, 
and  connected  by  the  preposition  of  applied  to  each  of  them  ;  as,  "  The  se- 
verity of  the  distress  of  the  son  of  the  king,  touched  the  nation ;"  but  this 
mode  of  expression  is  not  to  be  recommended.  It  would  be  better  to  say, 
■'The  severe  distress  of  the  king's  son  touched  the  nation."  We  have  a 
striking  instance  of  this  laborious  mode  of  expression,  in  the  following  sen- 
tence :  "  Of  some  of  the  books  o/cacli  o/ these  classes  of  literature,  a  cata- 
logue will  be  given  at  the  end  of  the  work." 

"In  the  army's  name."  How  may  this  expression  be  altered  for  the  bet- 
ter ? 

5. 
"  The  world's  government  is  not     "  It  was  necessary  to  have  both 

left  to  chance."  (6.)  the   physician's  and  the  sur- 

"  She    married    my    son's    wife's  geoii's  advice."  (9.) 

brother."  (7.)  "  The  extent  of  the  prerogative 

'<  This  is  my  wife's  brother's  part-  of  the  king  of  England  is  suf- 

ner's  house."  (8.)  ficiently  ascertained." 

6.  In  some  cases,  we  use  both  the  genitive  termination  and  the  preposition 
of;  as,  "  It  is  a  discovery  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's."  Sometimes,  indeed,  un- 
less we  throw  the  sentence  into  another  form,  this  method  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary, in  order  to  distinguish  the  sense,  and  to  give  the  idea  of  jjroperty,  strict- 

(1.)  Or  possessive.  (2.)  "  Johnson's  s/to;;."  Rule  I.  ("i.)  '■'  cutler."  f?oo 

Note  I.  under  this  Rule.  {■i.)''Tlietcntofloi-d,"SLC.  (5.H3I.  (d.)  "■  The 
government  of  the  world."  (J.)  "  the  brother  of  mij  f^oii's  wife."  (8.)  "  This 

koiise  belongs  to  the  iiartncr  of  my  wijVs  brother."  (9.)  "  the  advice  both  of." 


15Q  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

ly  so  called,  whicli  is  the  most  iiTi|j<!!:a!it  of  tlic  iclalioiis  expressed  by  tne 
genitive  c;isc  ;  tor  llie  expiessioiis,  "  This  picture  of  my  friend,''  and  "  'J'lus 
picture  of  my  friend's,"  suggest  very  different  ideas.  The  Ir.tter  onl^-  i»  tliat 
of  propi.Tly,  in  the  strictesf  sense.  The  idea  would,  doulitless,  iie  ioii\(;ycd 
in  a  better  manner,  by  saying,  '•  This  picture,  belonging  to  my  friend." 

^^'hcu  this  di)ul)le  genitive,  as  some  grannnarians  term  it,  is  not  necc.s.sary 
to  distiiiguish  the  sense,  and  especially  in  a  grave  style,  it  is  generallj'  omit- 
ted. E.\ccpt  to  prevent  ambiguity,  it  seems  to  be  allowable  only  in  cases 
\vliich  suppose  the  existence  oi'  a  p-iurality  of  subjects  of  the  same  kind.  In 
tlic  expressions,  ''  A  subject  of  the  emperor's  ;"  "  A  sentimciil  of  my  broth- 
er's ;"  more  than  one  suljjeci,  and  one  seiilfcaent,  are  supposed  to  belong  to 
tile  possessor.  But  when  tliis  plurality  is  neither  intimated,  nor  nec-essarily 
supposed,  the  double  genitive,  except  as  before  mentioned,  should  not  be 
used  ;  as,  "  This  house  of  the  governor  is  very  commodious  ;"  '"  The  crown 
of  the  king  was  stolen;"  "  That  privilege  of  the  scholar  was  never  abused." 
But,  after  all  that  can  be  said  for  this  double  genitive,  as  it  is  termed,  some 
grammarians  think  that  it  would  be  belter  to  avoid  the  use  of  it  altogether, 
and  to  give  the  sentiment  another  form  of  expression. 

Are  there  any  cases  in  which  we  use  both  the  genitive  termination  and  the 
preposition  of?     Give  an  example.     Is  this  double  genitive  ever  omitted  1 

G. 
"  That  picture  of  the  king's  does     "  This  estate  of  the  corporation's 

not  much  resemble  (1.)  him."  is  much  encumbered." 

"  These  pictures  of  the  king  (2.)     "  That  is  the  eldest   son  of  the 

were  sent  to  him  from  Italy."  king  of  England's." 

7.  When  ^r^  entire  clause  of  a  sentence,  beginning  with  a  [larticiple  of  (he 
present  tense,  is  used  as  one  name,  or  to  express  one  idea  or  circumstance, 
the  noun  on  which  it  depends  iimy  he  put  in  the  genitive  case  :  dius,  instead 
of  saying,  "  What  is  the  reason  of  this  person  disminslng  his  servant  so  hasti- 
ly 1"  that  is,  "  What  is  the  reason  of  this  person  in  dismissing  his  .icrvant  so 
hastily  '/"  we  may  sa^',  and  j)erhaps  ought  to  say,  "  What  is  the  reason  of 
this  person's  dismissing  of  his  servant  so  hastily  ?"  just  as  we  sav,  "  Mliat 
is  the  reason  of  this  person's  hasty  dismission  of  his  servaiu  ?"  iSo  also  we 
say,  ■'  I  remember  it  being  reckoned  a  great  exploit  ;"  or,  mere  properlv,  "  1 
remember  its  being  reckoned,"  iv,c.  The  following  sentence  is  correct  and 
proper  :  •*  Much  will  depeii'l  on  the  piijnl's  composing-,  but  more  on  /i/.s  7-etu/- 
iiig  I'requcntiy."  li  would  not  be  accurate  to  say,  "  afui'h  will  depend  on  the 
pupil  composing:;,''  «tc.  We  also  properly  say,  "  This  will  be  the  cfl'ecl  of 
lite  piipiPs  composing  frecjuently  ;"  instead  of  ''  of  t/it  pupil  cotiiposing  fre- 
quently." 

"  What  is  the  reason  of  this  person  dismissing  his  servant  so  hastil}'  ?" 
Will  you  correct  this  sentence,  and  give  the  rule  for  it  ? 

7. 

"  What  (3.)    criii  be  the  cause  of  the  Ifollanilcrs  their  throwing 

the  parliament  neglecting  so  off  the    monarchy  of  Spain, 

important  a  business."  and  their  withdravvnng  entire- 

"  Much  depends  on  this  ?-?t/ebeino-  ly    tlieir    alle<riance    to    that 

observed.  crown. 

"  The    time  of    William,   making     "  If  we  alter  the  situation  of  any 

the  experiment,  at  length  ar-  of  the   words,  we  sIi-tII  pres- 

rived."  ently  be  sensible  of  the  melo- 

"  It  is  very  prob.-ible  tltat  this  ai4-  dy  suffering." 

sembly   was    called,  to   clear     "  Such   will  ever  I'e  tlip  effect  of 

some   doubt   wbicii   the   kin?  youtii  associating  v/illi  vicious 

had   about  tlie  lawfulness  of  corn|)a.aiona," 


(1.)  .'i86.         (2.)  fir,  "  Tlieic  pictures  bdo'tjrhnr  lo  the  Ulng,'"  &o.         (3.)  Rule  X  V 


SVNTAX.  153 

Coirospoiidiiig  witli  P.lurray'o  Graiiimai- 
EUr.K  XI. 

Active  transitive  verbs  gowerii  the  oojective  case. 

In  EiigHisli,  the  nomiimlive  case,  deiiolii\^  the  subject,  usunlly  goes  before 
the  verb;  and  the  objcctivo  cause,  denoting  tlie  object,  follows  the  verb  active; 
and  it  is  the  order  that  dclcriiiincs  the  case  in  nouns ;  as,  "  Alexander  con- 
ouered  the  Persians."  But  the  pronoun,  having  a  proi)er  form  for  each  of 
lliosG  cases,  is  sometimes,  when  it  is  in  tlie  objecttvc  case,  placed  before  the 
verb  ;  and,  when  it  is  in  the  nominative  case,  follows  the  object  and  verb;  as, 
"Wlwni  y«  ijjnoranlly  worship,  liim  declare  I  unto  you." 

This  pciSJtion  of  the  pronoun  somolinics  occasions  its  proper  case  and  "^ov- 
ernmcnt  to  be  ne"lected  ;  as  in  the  following  instances  :  "  Who  should  I  es- 
teem more  than  the  wise  and  good  1"  "  By  the  character  of  those  who  you 
ehoose  for  your  friends,  your  own  is  likely  to  be  formed."  "  Those  are  the 
persons  who  he  thought  "true  to  his  interests."  "  Who  should  I  see  the  other 
day  but  my  old  friend  .'"  '•  Whosoever  the  court  favors."  In  all  these  places, 
it  ougiit  to"  be  ivlwm,  the  relative  being  governed  in  the  objective  case  by  the 
verbs  esteem,  choose,  llwitght,  &c.  "  He,  who,  under  all  jiroper  circum- 
stances, has  the  boldness  to  speak  truth,  choose  for  thy  friend ;"  it  should  be 
"him  who,"  &c. 

Verbs  neuter  and  intransitive  do  not  act  upon,  or  govern,  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns. "  He  sleeps,"  "  they  muse,"  &c.,  are  not  transitive.  They  are,  there- 
fore, not  followed  by  an  objective  case,  specifying  the  object  of  an  actroii. 
But  when  this  case,  or  an  object  of  action,  conies  after  such  verbs,  though  it 
may  carrj'  the  appearance  of  being  governed  by  them,  it  is  affected  by  a 
preposition  or  some  other  word  understood  ;  as,  "  He  resided  many  years 
[that  is,  for  or  duiing  many  years]  in  that  street ;"  "  He  rode  several  miles 
[that  is,  'for  or  through  the  space  of  several  miles]  on  that  day  ;"  "  He  lay 
an  hour  [that  is,  during  an  hour]  in  great  torture."  In  the  phrases,  "  To 
dream  a  dream,"  "  To  live  a  virtuous  life,"  "  To  run  a  race,"  ''  To  w'alk  the 
horse,"  "  To  dance  the  child,"  the  verbs  certainly  assume  a  transitive  form, 
and  may  not,  in  these  cases,  be  improperly  denominated  transitive  verbs. 

How  is  the  nominative  case  usually  known  in  English  ?  How  the  objec- 
tive ?  Do  neuter  verbs  govern  nouiis  and  pronouns  ?  In  the  phrase,  "  He 
resided  many  years  in  that  street,"  how  do  you  parse  years?  When  verbs 
naturally  neutca-  assume  a  transitive  form,  what  may  they  then  be  called  ? 
"  Tkey  zcho  opulence  has  made  "  She  that  is  idle  and  mischievous, 
proud,    and    vho  luxury   has  reprove  sharply." 

corrupted,  cannot  relish   the     "  Who  did   they  send   to  him  on 
simple  pleasures  of  nature  "  so  important  an  errand  V 

"  You  have  reason  to  dread   his     "  That  is  the  friend  (4.)  who  you 
wrath,    which    one    day    (1.)  must   receive    cordially,  and 

will  destroy  ye  both."  who  you  cannot  esteem  too 

"  Wlio  have  I  reason  to  love  so  (2.)  highly." 

much  (2.)  as  this  friend  (3.)  of    "  He  invited  my  brother  and  I  to 
my  youth  ?"  see   and  examine  (3.)   his  li 

"  Yc,   who  were    dead,    liath    he  brary." 

quickened."  "  He  who  committed  the  offence, 

"  Who  did  they  entertain  so  free-  you  sliould  correct,  not  I,  who 


ly^ 


am  innocent." 


"  The   man   who   he  raised  from  "  We   should  fear  and  obey  the 

obscurity,  is  dead."  Author  of  our  being,  even  He 

"  Ve  only  have  I  known  of  all  the  who  has  power  to  reward  or 

families  of  the  earth."  punish  us  forever."' 

He  and  they  we  know,  but  vdio  "  They  who  he  had  most  (5.)  in- 

(4.)  are  you .'"  jured,   he   had    the    greatest 

reason  to  love." 

(l.)RuloXXir.        (2.)  Adverb.        (3.)  Rule  XI.        (4.)  Rule  XV.        (5.)  678. 


154  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

1.  Some  writers,  however,  use  certain  neutsr  or  intransitive  verbs  as  if 
tliey  were  transitive,  pulling-  ailor  lliem  the  olijedive  case,  agreeably  to  th« 
rrc-iuh  eonslrnftio:i  of  refi})rocal  verbs  ;  t)Ut  this  custom  is  so  foreign  lo  the 
iihoni  of  ihc  English  tongue,  tiial  it  ought  not  lo  be  adopiptl  or  iniiialecl.  The 
foiiov.'ingaro  some  instances  of  this  |;r;'.i-tiro  ;  "  Rrpenlin;^  him  of  Ins  design." 
•■  Tiie  knig  soon  Ibunfl  reason  to  re>>eid  him  of  his  [jrovoking  such  dangerous 
enemies."  '■  The  popular  lords  did  not  lail  to  ndarrre  Uieniselves  on  the  sub- 
ject.''  "  The  nearer  his  successes  artproarlud  liim  lo  llie  throne."  "  Go^Jlee 
thee  awav  into  the  land  of  Jiidah."  "  [  think  it  by  no  means  a  tit  and  decent 
thing  to  rie  chariiies,"  &c.  "  'i'liey  have  spent  their  whole  time  and  jiains  lo 
a^reeVciS  sacred  with  the  [<rofanc  chronology." 

"Repeiiling  him  of  his  i'esign."  Will  you  rejicat  the  note  which  shows 
this  sentence  to  be  incorreci  i 

1. 

"Though  lie  now  t:ike3  pleasuro  before    liim,   the   humbler  he 

in  them,  he  will   one  d;!y  (i.)  g-rew." 

repent  kini  ('2.)  of  indulgonces     "  It  v.-ill  be  very  difliciilt  to  agree 

so  unwarrantable."  his  conduct  with  (3.)  the  pria- 

"  The  nearer  his  virtues  approach-  ciples  he  professes." 

ed  him  to  tlie  great  example 

2.  Active-traiisi;i\ e  \crbs  are  sometimes  as  improperly  made  neuter  or  in- 
Iran.^ilive;  as,  "1  must  p,-emi':e  with  three  circumstances;"  '•  Those  who 
ihijik  to  iii^-fuiiufe  iciih  liim  by  calumniating  tne." 

'•  I  must  premise  with  three  circumstances."  Will  you  correct  this  sen- 
leiiee,  and  give  the  rule  for  it  ? 

"To  ingratiate  (4.)  with  some  by     "I    shall    premise   with    two   or 
traducing  others,  marks  a  base  three  general  observations." 

and  despicable  mind." 

3.  The  neuter  verb  (5.)  is  varied  like  the  active  ;  but,  having,  in  some  de- 
gree, the  nature  of  the  passive,  it  admits,  in  many  instances,  of  the  passive  form, 
retaining  still  the  neuter  signification,  chiefly  in  such  verbs  as  signify  some  sort 
tf  motion,  or  change  of  place  or  condition  ;  as,  '■  I  am  come  ;"  "  I  was  gone  ;" 
"  I  am  grown  ;"  "  1  was  fallen."  The  following  examples,  however  Appear 
lo  be  erroneous,  in  giving  llie  neuter  verbs  a  passive  Ibrm,  instead  of  an  active 
one  :  "  The  rule  oi  our  holy  religion,  from  which  we  are  infinitely  su'en-ed." 
'•  The  wliole  obligation  of  that  law  and  covenant  ico.s  also  ceased."  "  Whose 
number  was  no-w  amounted  lo  three  hundred."  "  This  mareschal,  upon  some 
A\svo\\\.cnl,  was  entered  into  a  conspiracy  against  his  master."  "AtUieend 
of  a  campaign,  when  half  the  men  are  deserted  or  killed."  It  should  be,  "  have 
swerved,"  •'  liad  ceased,"  &c. 

"  I  am  come."     Why  should  not  this  be  "  I  have  come"  ? 

3. 

"  If  such  maxims  and  such  prac-     "The  mighty   rivals  are  now  at 
tices   (C.)    prevail,   what   has  length  agreed." 

(7.)    become  of   decency   and     "  The    influence    of   his   corrupt 
virtue  ?"  exain])le  was  (8.)  then  entire- 

"  1  have,  come,  according  to  the  1}'  ceased." 

time    proposed ;    but   I    have     "  He   was  entered  into  the   con- 
fallen  upon  an  evil  hour."  nection     before     the    conse- 
quences were  considered." 

(1.)  Rule  XXII.  {i>.)  "■  repent  of."  f^i.) '■'■  to  make a.rrree  icitli,"  Slc. 

l4.)  "  ingratiate  ourselves.^'  (5.)  By  neuter  and  actice,  Mr.  Murray  here  means 

what  in  this  work  are  styled  intransitive  and  transitive  verbs,  (6.)  Rule  XI 

'7.)  "  is  become."  (8.)  " /md." 


SYNTAX.  155 

_  Rule  XV.  When  two  or  more  nuvins,  or  nouns  and  pronouns, 
Bignifying  the  same  thing,  come  together,  they  are  put  by  appo- 
sition in  tlie  same  case. 

IT*  Tlu  examples  which  foUow  may  he  corrected  by  this  Rule  or  the  follme- 
iiig  Note. 

4.  Tlie  verb  to  he,  tlirouj;li  nil  ils  variations,  lia.«  the  .sairio  case  after  it  as 
that  winch  iie.xl  pruritics  il.  "/  am  he  whom  llwv  invitod."  "It  may  be 
(or,  It  inigiit  iiavc  bcGii)  he,  but  it  caimol  be  [or,  c(«Il<l  not  have  been)  l."  "It 
IS  impossible  to  l)e  they."  "  It  seems  to  have  been  he  who  conducted  himself 
so  wisely."  "  It  appeared  lo  be  she  that  Irniisacled  the  business."  "  I  un- 
derstood it  to  be  him."  '•  i  liciieve  it  to  have  been  them."  "  \Vc  at  (irst  took 
a  lobp  her;  but  were  afterwards  convinced  that  it  was  i\ol  she."  "  He  is 
not  the  persoii  who  it  secnisd  he  was."  "  He  is  really  the  person  who  he  ap- 
peared to  be."  "  She  is  not  now  the  woman  whom  they  reprcsenlsd  her  to 
have  been."  "  ll'lwni  do  yon  iaucy  him  io  Im  V  By  these  examples,  it  ap- 
pears that  this  substantive  verb  has  no  government  of  ease;  but  serves',  in  all 
Us  forms,  as  a  conductor  lo  tlie  cases  ;  so  that  llic  two  cases  w  hich,  in  the  con- 
struction of  tlie  sentence,  are  the  next  before  and  after  it,  must  always  be  aliki*. 
Perhaps  this  snl>ject  will  be  more  intellig-iblo  lo  the  learner,  by  observin"-,  tliat 
the  words  in  the  eases  precedin:^  and  follov\ing  the  verb  (o  he.  may  be  said  to 
be  in  apposition  to  each  other.  '  'I'hus,  in  the  sentence,  "  1  understood  it  to  be 
him,"  the  words  //  and  him  are  in  api)osiliiin  ;  that  is,  "  they  refer  lo  the  same 
thiiii,'',  and  are  in  the  same  case." 

The  followin.!^  sentences  (■oniain  deviations  from  the  rule,  and  exhibit  the 
pronoun  in  a  wrong  case.  "  it  ini^lit  l,;-,vc  b' en  liim.  but  tiiere  is  no  proof  of 
il."  "  'I'liough  1  was  blamed,  it  coiild  nm  !i,-,ve  l.>een  me."  "  I  saw  one  whom 
I  took  to  be  she."  ".She  is  the  p-crsi.n.  ',■•;,,•<  \  initiersto.Kl  it  to  have  been." 
"  IVho  ■!<)  vou  think  me  to  be  V  "  IMwm  do  men  say  that  1  ain  ?"  "  And 
whom  tliiiik  j-e  llial  I  nm  .'" 

Tas^ixe  verbs,  which  sii;niiy  naming,  &c.,  have  the  same  case  before  ajid 
after  them;  as,  "He  was  called  CiPsar;"  "She  was  named  Penelope;" 
"  Homer  is  styled  the  prince  of  poets  ;"  "James  was  created  a  duke  ;"  "  The 
general  was  saluted  emperor;"'  "Tlie  prolessor  was  appointed  tutor  to  the 
prince.'" 

"1  am  liim  whom  lliev  ia-.  It'-.l.'"     Will  von  correct  this  sentence,  and  o-jve 

the  rule  fur  it  1.  '                                             'a 

4. 

""  Wei!  imy  you  bo  afraid  ;   it  is  ihe.m  (2.)  who  conducted   tlie 

hail  iadeod."  l)iisiuo;.-s  ;  but  1  am  certain  it 

"  I  would  act  tlif  same  ji'irt,  i!"  1  was  not  him." 

were  /i//,v,  (!.)  or  in  liis  siiua-  "lie    so     niiich     rrsenibled     mv 

^  fioii-"                 _  brotlier,  liiat,  at  first  sio-lit,  "I 

"  Seavcii    the    Scriptures,    for   in  took  it  to  be  he." 

(heni  j-e  think  ye  h  ivc  cferua!  "  After  all  tlieir  professions,  is  it 

lil"e  ;•  and  they  are  ihrrn  whi.,.'ii  ]-.r,,<.:ilb!e  to  be  them  ?" 

testily  of  inc."_  "  It  e.ni:J!|   not  have  been  her,  for 

"Be    composed:    it   is  me:    you  she  r.j'.vays  behaves  discreet- 

h.ave  nn  cauae  for  fear."  Ir." 

"  T  cannot  tell  who  has'^efrieuded  "  If  it  was  not  him,  wiio  do  you 

n\<*,    ir.iless    it    is    him     i'rom  inin.Lnne  it  to  have  beerif'"' 

Vv-hom  1  have   received  many  •'  Who  do  you  think  him  to  be.'" 

benefits."  "  "Whom  do  the   people  say  th.it 

"  1    know    not    wheth.er    it    irere  we  are  ?'' 

*  When  Iho  verb  to  be,  is  undi-i-.-itond,  it  lias  lliu  sain.;  cast;,  l)urore  nnil  at'tcr  it  as 
whcYi  it  is  expressed:  as,  "  [in  siifiins  the  inadnr  of  tha  jiarly  ;"  "lie  shall  con- 
tinue 5towarfl;"  "  Tliuy  appoinMnl  me  exocntor;"  "I  supposi.d  l,im  a  man  of 
learning  ;"— t!i.-.t  is,  "Un  seems  to  he  tlie  leailcr  of  the  party,"  &c.  Koiins  in  appo- 
sition arc  in  the  paino  casrt  ;  as,  "\Vc  nameil  ilin  man  Poinppy  ;"  "  Tli,»v  inav  term 
Charles  a  vi«iion,iry,  but  they  cannot  cull  lilm  a  deceiver;"  "  Ilortensius  died  a 
martyr ;"  "  The  gentle  Sidney  lived  the  shepherd's  friend." 

(1.)  Rule  XV.  (2.)  "  they  were  the  persons." 


156  ENGLISH  GRAMIMAlt 


lie  auxiliary  let  governs  ihc  objective  case  ;   as,  "  Let  him  beware  ;' 
;  judge  candidly  ;"  "  Let  them  not  presume  ;"  "  Let  George  study  his 


5.  The 
"  Let  Jcs . 
lesson.' 

"  Let  us  judge  candidly."     Li  what  case  is  us  ?     What  is  the  rule  ? 


"  Whatever  (L)  others  do,  let  (2.)     "  Let  them  and  we  unite  to  op- 
thou  and  /  act  wisely."  pose  this  growing  (_3.)  evil.' 

muLE  XII. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  XII. 

The  infinitive  mood  may  be  governed  by  verbs,  partici^ 
pies,  adjectives,  nouns  and  pronouns. 

The  preposition  to,  though  generally  used  before  the  latter  verb,  is  some- 
times properly  omitted  ;  as",  "  I  Iseard  him  say  it ;"  instead  of  "  to  say  it."    _ 

The  verbs  which  have  commonly  other  verbs  following  them,  in  the  infini- 
tive mood,  without  the  sign  to,  are,  bid,  dare,  need,  make,  see,  hear,  feel,  and 
also  let.  not  used  as  an  auxiliary  ;  and  perhai^s  a  few  others ;  as,  "  1  bade  him 
do  it ;"  "  Ye  dare  not  do  it ;"  "  I  saw  him  do  it  j"  "  I  heard  hun  say  it ;" 
"  Thou  lettest  him  go." 

Will  you  name  the  verbs  which  have  commonly  other  verbs  in  the  infinitive 
mood  after  them,  without  the  sign  to  ? 

"  It  is   better  (4.)  live  on  a   lit-     "  I  need  not  to  solicit  him  to  do  a 

tie,   (5.)   than  outlive  a  good  kind  action." 

(jpj^]  "  "  I  dare  not  to  proceed  so  hastily, 

"  You  ouo-ht  not  walk  too  hastily."  leat  I  should  give  ofl'ence." 

"  1    wish^him    not    wrestle    witli     "  I  have  seen  some  young  persons 

his  happiness."  to  conduct  themselves    very 

discreetly." 

1  In  the  following  passages,  tlie  word  to,  the  sign  of  the  infinitive  mood, 
where  h  is  distingiiished  by  Italic  characters,  is  superfluous  and  improper  :  "  1 
liave  observed  some  satirists  to  use,"  &c.  "  To  see  so  many  to  mal^e  so  little 
conscience  of  so  great  a  sin."  "  It  cannot  but  be  a  deli"htful  spectacle  to  God 
and  an"-els,  to  see  a  voung  person,  besieged  by  powerful  lempttiUons  on  every 
side  icTacciuil  himself  gloriously,  and  re'solutely  to  hold  out  against  ilie  most 
violent  assaults  ;  to  belioKI  one  in  the  prime  and  llower  of  his  age,  that  is 
courted  by  pleasures  and  honors,  by  the  devil,  and  all  the  bewitching  vanities 
of  the  world,  to  reject  all  these,  and  to  cleave  steadfastly  unto  God." 

This  mood  has  also  been  iniproperlv  used  in  the  followiiiof  places  :  "  I  am 
not  like  olhcr  men,  to  cnw  the  talents  1  cannot  reach."  "  Grammarians  have 
denied  or  at  ie;ist  doubted,  them  lo  be  genuine."  "  That  all  our  doings  may 
be  ordered  by  thy  governance,  to  do  always  what  is  righteous  in  thy  sight." 

The  infinitive  is  frequently  governed  by  adjectives,  substantives,  and- parti 
ciplcs  ;  as,  "  He  is  eager  to  learn  ;"  "  She  is  worthy  to  be  loved  j"  "They 
have  a' desire  to  improve  ;"  "  Endeavoring  to  persuade." 

'iUtf!  infinitive  mood  has  much  of  the  nature  of  a  substantive,  expressing  the 
acti^tsclf  which  die  verb  signifies,  as  the  participle  has  the  nature  of  a,n  ad- 
jective. Thus  the  hifiuitive  niood  does  the  office  of  a  substantive  in  diflerent 
cn^c-;  —in  the  nominative  ;  as,  "  To  play  is  pleasant  :"— in  the  objective  ;  as, 
"  Boys  lo\e  to  plan ;"  "  Tor  to  icilL  is  present  with  me  ;  but  to  perform  that 
which  is  ijood.  I  find  not." 

The  in!initi\-e  mood  is  often  made  absolute,  or  used  independently  ou  the 
rest  of  the  sentence,  supplving  the  place  of  the  conjunction  that  with  the  po- 
tential mood  ;  as,  "  To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  in  fault  ;"  "  To  begin  with 
the  first ;"  "  To  proceed  ;"  "  To  conclude  ;"— that  is,  "  That  I  may  confess," 
&£^ . 

(1.)  Rul«  VIU.        (2.)  Ir.ip.  Rule  VI.        (3.)  .'i59.        'A.)  "  to  live."  Rule  XIl 
{f,.)  Noun. 


SYNTAX.  137 

"  I  have  observed  some  satirists  to  use,"  &.c.     Wiiat  is  incorrect  iii  Uiis 

sentence  ? 

Li  the  expression,  "  He  is  eager  to  leani,"  will  you  parse  to  learn  7     What 

IS  the  rule  ?  (1.)     "  To  play  is  pleasant."     Will  you  parse  to  "play,  and  give 

a  rule  for  it  ?  (1.)     "  To  coiifess  tlie  truth,  1  was  in  fault."      llow  is  to  con- 

fess  parsed  ?     What  is  the  rule  for  it  ?  (2.) 

1. 

"  It  is  a  great  support  to  virtue,  are    courted    by    health   and 

when  wo  see  a  good  mind  to  pleasure,    to    resist    all     the 

maintain  (3.)  its  patience  and  allurements    of  vice,   and  to 

tranquillity,under  injuries  and  steadily    pursue    virtue    and 

affliction,  and  <o  cordially  for-  knowledge,   is   cheering  and 

give  its  oppressors."  delightful     to     every     good 

"  It  IS  the  difference  of  their  con-  mind." 

duct,  which  makes  us  lo  ap-  "  They  acted  with  so  much  re- 
prove the  one,  and  to  reject  serve,  that  some  {>ersons 
tlie  other."  doubted   tke^ii  to  be  sincere." 

"  We  should  not   be  like   many  (7.) 

persons,  to  (4.)  depreciate  the  "  And  the  multitude  wondered, 
virtues  kc  (5.)    do    not  pes-  when   they  saw   the   lame  to 

sess."  walk,  and  the  blind  to  see." 

"  To  see  (6.)  young  persons  who  (8.) 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Gnunraar, 

RULE  xm. 

In  the  use  of  words  and  phrases  which,  in  point  of  time, 
relate  to  each  other,  a  due  regard  to  that  relation 
shoidd  he  observed.  Instead  of  saying,  "•  The  Lord 
hath  given,  and  the  Lord  hath  taken  away,"  we 
should  sai/,  "  The  Lord  gave,  and  the  Lord  hath 
taken  away."  Instead  of  "  I  remember  the  family 
more  than  twenty  years,"  it  should  be,  "  I  have  re- 
membered the  family  more  than  twenty  years." 

It  is  not  easy  to  give  particular  rules  for  the  management  of  the  moods  and 
tenses  of  verbs  with  respect  to  one  another,  so  that  they  may  be  proper  and 
consistent.  The  best  rule  that  can  be  given,  is  this  very  general  one — "  To 
observe  what  tlie  sense  iiecessarilj'  requires."  It  may,  however,  be  of  use  to 
give  a  few  examples  of  irregular  construction.  "  The  last  week  I  intended 
to  have  written,"  is  a  very  common  phrase ;  the  infinitive  being  in  the  past 
time,  as  well  as  the  verb  which  it  follows.  But  it  is  certainly  wrong  ;  for  how 
long  soever  it  now  is  since  I  thought  of  writing,  to  virite  was  then  present  to 
me,  and  must  still  be  considered  as  present,  when  1  bring  back  that  time,  and 
the  thoug-hts  of  it.  It  ought,  therefore,  to  be,  "  The  last  week  I  intended  to 
u-rite."  The  following  sentences  are  also  erroneous  :  "  I  cannot  excuse  the 
reiTHSsness  of  those  whose  business  it  should  have  been,  as  it  certainly  was 
their  interest,  to  have  interposed  their  good  offices."  "  There  were  two  cir- 
cumstances which  made  it  necessary  for  them  to  have  lost  no  time."  "  Histo- 
ry painters  would  have  found  it  difficult  to  have  invented  such  a  species  of  be- 
ings." The}'  ought  to  be,  to  interpose,  to  lose,  to  invent.  "  On  the  morrow, 
because  he  would  have  kno\vn  the  certaint}'  wherefore  he  was  accused  of  the 
Jews,  he  loosed  him."  It  ought  to  be,  "  because  he  icould  know,"  or,  rather, 
"  being  willing  to  know."     "  The  blind  man  said  unto  him,  Lord,  that  I  might 

(1.)  Rule  XU.  (2.)  Nota  XII.  LVIII.         (3.)  For  to  maintain  read  maintain 

(4.)  "  wAo."  (5.)  "  they."  (6.)  Note  XIII.  (7.)  "  their  sincerity." 

(8.)  "persons  who  had  bten  l«me  icciddng;  and  those  who  had  been  blind,  seeing  " 

14 


158  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

receive  my  sieht."  "  If  by  Einy  means  I  miglii  attain  unto  the  resurrection  of 
the  dead."  May,  in  both  places,  would  have  been  belter.  "  From  his  bibli- 
cal knowledge,  he  appears  (o  stud}-  the  Scriptures  with  great  attention  ;"  "to 
hare  studied,"  &.c.  ''  I  feared  that  1  should  have  lost  it,  before  I  arrived  at 
the  city  ;"  "  should  lose  it."  "  1  had  rather  walk  ;"  it  should  be,  ''  I  would 
rather  walk."  "  It  would  have  alVorded  me  no  satisfaction,  if  I  could  pcrlbrm 
it ;"  it  should  be,  "  if  I  could  have  performed  ii ;"  or,  ■'  It  would  ajford  me  no 
satisfaction,  if  I  could  perform  it." 

To  preserve  consistency  in  the  lime  of  verbs,  we  must  recollect  that,  in  the 
subjunctive  mood,  the  present  and  iniperl'ect  tenses  often  carry  with  them  a  fu- 
ture sense  ;  and  that  the  auxiliaries  should  and  would,  in  the  imperfect  times, 
are  used  to  express  the  present  or  future,  as  well  as  the  past. 

"  I  intended  to  have  written."  Will  yoa  point  out  the  incorrectness  of  this 
sentence,  and  give  a  rule  tor  it  ? 

"  The  next  new  year's  day  I  shall  hold  on  all  the  opportunities. 

be  (1.)  at  school  three  years."  which  the  imprudence,  weak- 

"  And  he   that  2cas  dead  (2.)  sat  ness,  or  necessities  of  princes 

up,  and  began  to  speak."  afford  it,  to  extend  its  author 

"  I   should   be  obliged  to  him,  if  ity." 

he   2cill   gratify  me    in    that  "  Fierce  as  he  moved,  his  silver 
particular."  shafts  resound." 

"  And    the  multitude    wondered,  "  They  maintained  that  scripture 
when   they  saw  the  dumb  to  conclusion,  that  all  mankind 

speak,  the  maimed  to  be  whole,  rise  from  one  head." 

the   lame  walk,  and  the  blind  "  John  will  earn  his  wages  when 
seeing."  (3.)  his  service  is  completed." 

"  I  have  compassion  on  the  mul-  "  Ye  will  not  come  unto  me  that 
titude,  because  ihej  continue  ye  might  have  life." 

with  me  now  three  days."  "  Be  that  as  it  will,   he   cannot 

"  In  the  treasury  belonging  to  the  justify  his  conduct." 

cathedral  in  this   city  is  pre-  "  I  have  been  at  London  a  year, 
served  (4.)  with  the  greatest  and  seen  the  king  last  sum- 

veneration,  for  upwards  of  six  mer." 

hundred  years,  a  dish  which  "  After  we   visited    London,   we 
they  pretend  to  be  made  of  returned,  content  and  thank- 

emerald."  ful,  to  our  retired  and  peace- 

"  The  court  of  Rome  gladly  laid  ful  habitation." 

1.  It  is  proper  further  to  observe,  that  verbs  of  the  infinitive  mood  in  the 
following  form — to  write,  to  be  writing,  and  to  be  written — always  denote  some- 
thing contemporary  with  the  time  of  the  governing  verb,  or  subsequent  to  it ; 
but  when  verbs  of  that  mood  are  expressed  as  follows — to  have  been  writing,  to 
have  icritten,  and  to  hare  been  ivritten — they  alwa}?  denote  something  antece 
dent  to  the  time  of  the  governing  verb.  Tiiis  remark  is  thought  to  be  of  im 
portance  ;  for,  if  <luly  attended  to,  it  will,  in  most  cases,  be  sufficient  to  direct 
us  in  the  relative  application  of  these  lenses. 

The  following-  sentence  is  properly  and  analogically  expressed  :  "  I  found 
him  better  than  I  expected  to  find  him."  "  Expected  to  have  found  him,"  is 
irreconcilable  alike  to  grammar  and  to  sense.  Indeed,  all  verbs  expressive  of 
hope,  desire,  intention,  or  command,  must  in\  ariably  be  followed  by  the  pres- 
ent, and  not  the  perfect  of  the  infinitive.  Every  person  would  perceive  an  er- 
ror in  this  expression — "  It  is  long  since  1  commanded  him  to  have  done  it ;" 
yet  "  expected  to  have  fourul,"  is  no  better.  It  is  as  clear  that  the  finding 
must  be  posterier  to  the  expectation,  as  that  the  obedience  must  be  posterior  to 
the  command. 

In  the  sentence  which  follows,  the  verb  is  with  propriety  put  in  the  perfect 
tense  of  the  infinitive  mood  :    "  It  would  have  afibrded  me  great  pleasure,  as 

(1.)  "  shall  have  been."        (2.)  "  had  been  dead."        (3.)  See  the  last  example  andet 
the  pracedlng  Rule.  (4.)  "  a  dish  has  been  preserv«d." 


SYNTAX.  159 

often  as  1  reflected  upon  it,  to  have  been  the  messenger  of  such  intelligence." 
As  the  message,  in  this  instance,  was  anleccdent  to  tlie  pleasure,  and  not  con- 
temporary witli  it,  tlie  \orl)  expressive  oC  the  message  must  denote  that  ante* 
cc<leu(e,  liy  being  in  llie  perlcct  of  llic  infinitive.  If  the  message  and  the 
pleasure  liad  been  rcfcrrecl  to  as  oonlcmporary,  liie  subsequent  verb  would, 
with  equal  i)ropriely,  liave  been  put  in  liie  present  of  liie  infinitive  5  as,  "  It 
would  have  atl'orded  me  groat  pleasure,  to  he  the  messenger  of  such  intelli- 
gence." In  the  former  instance,  the  phrase  in  question  is  equivalent  to  these 
words — "  If  1  had  been  the  messenger  ;"  in  tlie  latter  instance,  to  this  expres- 
sion— •'  Being  the  messenger." 

It  is  proper  to  inl'orm  the  learner,  that,  in  order  to  express  the  past  time 
with  the  defective  verb  ought,  the  perfect  of  the  indnitive  must  always  be 
used  ;  as,  '•  He  ought  to  hare  done  it."  When  we  use  this  verb,  this  is  the 
only  possible  way  to  distinguish  the  past  from  lite  pre.sent. 

In  support  of  the  positions  advanced  under  this  rule,  we  can  produce  tho 
sentiments  of  eminent  grammarians  ;  amongst  whom  are  Lowth  and  Camp- 
bell. But  there  are  some  writers  on  grammar  who  strenuously  maintain,  that 
the  governed  verb  in  the  iiifinilive  ought  to  be  ui  the  past  tense,  when  the  verb 
which  governs  it  is  in  the  past  time.  Though  this  cannot  be  admitted,  in  the 
instcuices  which  are  controverted  under  this  rule,  or  in  any  instances  of  a  sim- 
ilar nature  ;  yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  in  many  cases,  in  which  the  things 
referred  to  preceded  the  governing  verb,  it  would  be  proper  and  allowable. 
We  may  say,  ''  From  a  conversation  I  once  had  with  him,  he  appeared  to  have 
sliulied  Homer  with  great  care  and  judgment."  It  would  be  proper  also  to 
say,  "  From  his  conversation,  he  appears  to  have  studied  Homer  with  great 
care  and  judgment;"  "  That  unhappv  man  is  supposed  to  have  died  by  vio- 
lence." These  examples  are  not  only  consistent  with  our  rule,  but  they  con- 
firm and  illustrate  it.  It  is  the  tense  of  the  governing  verb  only,  that  marks 
what  is  called  the  absolute  time  ;  the  tense  ol  the  verb  governed  marks  solely 
its  relative  time  with  respect  to  the  other. 

To  assert,  as  some  writers  do,  that  verbs  in  the  infinitive  mood  have  no 
tenses,  no  relative  distinctions  of  present,  past  and  future,  is  inconsistent  with 
just  grammatical  views  of  the  subject.  That  these  verbs  associate  with  verbs 
in  all  the  tenses,  is  no  proof  of  their  having  no  peculiar  time  of  their  own. 
Whatever  period  the  governing  verb  assumes,  whether  present,  pEist,  or  fii- 
ture,  the  governed  verb  in  the  infinitive  always  respects  that  period,  and  its 
time  is  calculated  from  it.  Thus,  the  time  of  "the  infinitive  may  be  before,  af- 
ter, or  the  same  as,  the  time  of  the  governing  verb,  according  as  the  thing  sig- 
nified by  the  infinitive  is  supposed  fo  be  before,  alter,  or  present  with  the  thing 
denoted  by  the  governing  verb.  It  is.  l!)crefore,  with  great  propriety,  that 
tenses  are  assigned  to  verbs  of  the  iiifiniii\-e  inood.  The  point  of  time  from 
which  they  are  computed,  is  of  no  consequence ;  since  present,  past,  and  fu- 
ture, are  completelv  applicable  to  them. 

We  shall  conclude  our  observations  under  this  rule,  by  remarking,  that, 
though  it  is  often  proper  to  use  the  perfect  of  the  infinitive  after  the  governing 
verb,  yet  there  are  particular  cases  m  which  it  would  be  better  to  give  the  ex- 
pression a  different  form.  Thus,  instead  of  saying,  "  I  vvish  to  have  vvritten 
to  him  sooner,"  "  I  then  wished  to  have  written  to  him  sooner,"  "  He  will  one 
day  wish  to  have  written  sooner;"  it  would  be  more  perspicuous  and  forcible, 
as  well  as  more  agreeable  to  the  practice  of  good  writers,  to  say,  "  I  wish  that 
I  had  written  to  him  sooner,"  "  I  then  wished  that  I  had  written  to  him  soon- 
er," "  He  will  one  day  wish  that  he  iiad  written  sooner."  Should  the  justness 
of  these  strictures  be  admitted,  there  would  still  be  numerous  occasions  for  the 
use  of  the  past  infinitive  ;  as  wc  may  perceive  by  a  few  examples  :  "  It  would 
ever  afterwards  have  been  a  source  of  pleasure,  to  have  found  him  vvise  and 
virtuous."  "  To  have  deferred  his  repentance  longer,  would  have  disqualifi- 
ed him  for  repenting  at  all."  "  They  will  then  see,  that  to  have  faithfully 
performed  their  duty,  would  have  been  their  greatest  consolation." 

"  1  expected  to  have  found  him."  Will  you  correct  this  sentence,  and  give 
a  rule  for  it  ?  What  tense  of  the  infinitive  must  be  used  to  express  past  time 
with  the  defective  verb  ought?  Give  an  example.  Is  it  proper  ever  to  use 
the  perfect  of  the  infinitive  after  the  governing  verb  ?     Give  an  example. 


160 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


'  I  purpose  to  go  to  London  in  a 
few  months,  and  after  1  shall 
finish  (1.)  my  business  there, 
to  proceed  (2.)  to  America." 
These  prosecutions  of  William 
seem  to  be  the  most  iniquitous 
measures  pursued  by  the 
court  during  the  time  that 
tlie  use  of  parliaments  was 
suspended." 
From  the  little  conversatiDii  I 
had  with  him,  he  appeared  to 
have  been  a  man  of  letters." 
I  always  intended  to  have  re- 
loarded  my  son  according  to 
his  merit." 

•'  It  would,  on  reflection,  have 
given  me  great  satisfaction, 
to  relieve  him  from  that  dis- 
tressed situation." 

•^  It  required  so  much  care,  that  I 
thought  I  should  have  lost  it 
before  I  reached  home." 

"  We  have  done  no  more  than  it 
was  oin-  duty  to  have  done." 

"  He  would  have  assisted  one  of 
his  friends,  if  he  could  do  it 
without  injuring  the  other; 
but  as  that  could  not  have 
been  done,  he  avoided  all  in- 
terference.' 

"  Must  it  not  be  erpecied  that  he 
would  have  defended  an  au- 
thority, which  had   been   so 


long  exercised  without  con- 
troversy.'" (3.) 

"  These  enemies  of  Christianity 
were  confounded,  whilst  they 
were  e.xpccting  to  have  found 
an  opportunity  to  have  be- 
trayed its  author." 

"  His  sea-sicknese  was  so  great, 
that  I  often  feared  he  would 
have  died  before  our  arrival." 

"  If  these  persons  had  intended 
to  deceive,  they  would  have 
taken  care  to  have  avoided 
what  would  expose  them  to 
the  objections  of  their  oppo- 
nents." 

"  It  was  a  pleasure  to  have  re- 
ceived his  approbation  of  my 
labors,  for  which  I  cordially 
thanked  him." 

"  It  would  have  afforded  me  still 
greater  pleasure,  fo  receive  his 
approbation  at  an  earlier  pe- 
riod ;  but  to  receive  (4.)  it  at 
all,  reflected  credit  upon  me." 

"  To  be  censured  by  him,  would 
soon  have  proved  an  insuper- 
able discouragement." 

"  Him  portioned  maids,  appren- 
ticed orphans  blest, 

The  young  who  labor,  and  the 
old  who  rest.^' 

"  The  doctor,  in  his  lecture,  said, 
that  fever  always  produced 
thirst." 


CorresponJing  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE   XIV. 

Active  pariicijjies  from  active  transitive   verbs  govern 

the  objective  case. 


enemies  to  me ;  and  he  as  a 
suspicious  friend." 
From  having  exposed  (7.)  hisself 
too  freely,  in  different  cli- 
mates, he  entirely  lost  his 
health." 


"  Esteeming  (.5.)  thcirseJves  wise, 

they  became  fools." 
"  Suspecting  not  only  ye,  but  they 

also,  I  was  studious  to  avoid 

all  intercourse." 
"  I  could   not  avoid  consid'^ring, 

(6.)  in  some  degree,  they  as 

1.  Participles  are  sometimes  governed  by  the  article  ;  for  the  present  parti- 
ciple, with  the  definite  article  liie  before  it,  becomes  a  substantive,  and  must 
have  the  preposition  of  after  it ;  as,  "  Tliese  are  the  rules  of  grammar,  by  the 
observing  of  which,  you  may  avoid  mistakes."     It  would  not  be  proper  to 

vl.)  "  shall  have  finished.''^  ("2.)  Rule  IX.  (3.)  "  Might  it  nolhave  bten,"  &c 
(4.)  "  to  Aaye  received  "  Note  X'lII.      (5.)  Rule  XIII.      (6.)  Rule  \IU-      (7)561. 


SYNTAX.  161 

say,  "  bj  »he  observing  wliicli,"  nor,  "  by  oliservin^  of  whicli ;"  but  the 
phrase,  w  .thout  either  article  or  proposition,  would  be  rig-ht ;  as,  •'  by  observ- 
nig-  wliicl  ."  The  article  a  or  nn  has  the  same  effect  5  as,  "  I'his  was  a  be- 
traying' of  the  trust  reposed  in  him." 

This  ruie  arises  from  the  iiauire  and  idiom  of  our  languag-e,  and  from  as 
plain  a  principle  as  any  on  which  it  is  foundeil  ;  Jianicly,  liiat  a  word  wiiich 
lias  the  article  before  it,  and  the  possessive  preposition  of  alter  it,  must  be  a 
noun  ;  and,  if  a  noun,  it  oug-ht  to  follow  the  construction  of  a  noun,  and  not  to 
havt  (he  regimen  of  a  verb.  It  is  the  participial  termination  of  this  sort  of 
wrrds,  that  is  apt  to  deceive  us,  and  ninUe  us  treat  ihem  as  if  they  were  of  an 
amnh-bious  species,  partly  nouns  and  partly  verbs. 

The  following  are  a  few  examples  of  the  violation  of  this  rule  :  "  He  was 
»ent  to  prepare  the  way  b^'  preaching  of  repentaiiee  ;"  it  ought  to  be,  "  by  the 
|iroacliing  of  repentance,"  or,  '■  by  preaching  repentance."  "  By  the  contin- 
ual mortifying  our  corrupt  affections  ;"  it  should  be,  "  by  the  continual  morti- 
fying ojj''  or,  "  by  continually  mortifying  our  cornipt  affections."  "  They 
laid  out  tiiemselves  towards  the  advancing  and  promoting  the  good  of  it ;" 
"  towards  advancing  and  promoting  the  good."  "  It  is  an  overvaluing  our- 
selves, to  reduce  every  thing  to  the  narrow  measure  of  our  capacities  ;"  "  it  is 
overvaluing  ourselves,"  or,  "  an  overvaluing  of  ourselves."  "  Keeping  of 
ouo  day  in  seven,"  &.C. ;  it  ought  to  be,  "  </(»?  keeping  o/one  day,"  or,  "  keep- 
ing one  day." 

A  phrase  in  which  the  article  preceiles  the  present  participle,  and  the  pos- 
sessive preposition  follows  it,  will  not,  in  every  instance,  convey  the  same 
nit-aning  as  would  be  conveyed  by  the  participle  without  the  article  and 
pri'position.  "  He  expressed  the  pleasure  he  had  in  the  hearina;' of  the  philos- 
opher," is  capable  of  a  different  sense  from,  "  He  expressed  the  jjleasure  he 
had  in  hearing  the  philosopher."  When,  tiiercfore,  v/e  wish,  lor  the  sake  of 
iiarmony  or  variety,  t*  substitute  one  of  these  ])hraseologies  for  the  other,  we 
should  previously  cons.<ier  wliether  they  are  perfecliy  similar  in  the  sentiments 
they  convey. 

"  By  the  observing  of  which."  Will  3'ou  parse  obserring  ?  Rile  for  it  ? 
What  words  in  this  sentence  may  be  omitted  with  propriety  ?  V/cald  it  bo 
(jfoper  to  omit  one  of  them  only  l 

1. 

"  By  ob.«!ervin<r  of  truth,  you  will  situated   for  gaiuiisg   of  wis- 

command  esteem,  as  well  as  doin.         Poverty     turns    our 

secure  peace."  thoughts   too   much  upon  the 

"  He  prepared  them  forthis  event,  supplying    our    wants;     and 

by  the  sending  to  them  proper  riches  i;pon  tjie  enjoying  our 

information."  superfluities." 

''  A  person  may  he  great  or  rich     "  Pliny,    speaking    of    Cato    the 
by  chance;  but  cannot  be  wise  Censor's      disapproving     the 

or  good    without   tlic   taking  Grecian     orators,    expressed 

pains  for  it."  hitnself  tlius." 

'  Notliinir  could  have   made  her     •■  Propriety    of    pronunciation    ia 
so  unliappy,  as  ^'/e  marrj'ing  the  giving  to  every  word  that 

a   man    who    possessed    such  sound,  which  the  most  polite 

principles."  usage  of  the  language  appro- 

"  The  changing  times  and  seasons,  priates  to  it." 

the  removing  and  setting  up     "  Tlie  not    attending  (1.)    to   this 
kings,  belong  to   Providence  rule,  is    the   cause   (2.)    of  a 

alone."  very  common  error." 

"  The  middle  station  of  life  seems     "  This  was  in  fact  a  converting 

to  be  the  most  advantageously  the  deposite  to  his  own  use.' 

"1.  The  same  observations  which  have  been  made   respecting  the  effect  of 

the  article  and  participle,  appear  to  be  applicable  to  the  pronoun  and  partici 

pie,  when  they  are  similarly  associated  ;  as,  "  Much  depends  on  their  observ 

"~~'  (1.)  Rulo  VI  (2.-1  Rule  XV.  '  ' 

M* 


i^  ENGLISH  GRAJklMAU. 

ing  of  the  rule,  and  error  will  be  the  consequence  of  ttieir  neglecting  of  ilJ"' 
instead  of  "  thei?-  obsei-ving  the  rule,  an<l  their  negkcting^t.''  We  shall  per- 
ceive this  more  clearly,  if  we  substitute  a  noun  for  the  pronoun  ;  as,  "  Much 
depends  upon  Tyro's  obsen-iiig  of  ihe  rule,"i&c.  But,  as  lliis  construction 
sounds  rather  harshlj',  it  woulcl,  in  general,  be  better  to  express  the  sentiment 
in  the  following,  or  some  other  form  ;  "  Much  depends  on  the  rule's  being  'b- 
seited ;  and  error  will  be  ihe  cons,eq\i&nce  on  its  being  neglected  :"  or,  "on 
observing  the  rule  ;"  and,  "  of  neglecting  it."  This  remark  may  be  applied 
to  several  other  modes  of  expression  to  be  found  in  this  work ;  which,  though 
they  are  contended  for  as  strictl}'  correct,  are  not  cdways  the  most  eligible,  on 
account  of  their  unpleasant  sound. 

We  sometimes  meet  with  e.xpressions  like  the  following  :  "  In  forming  of 
his  sentences,  he  was  very  exact ;"  "  From  calling  of  names,  he  proceeded 
to  blows."  I3ut  this  is  incorrect  language  ;  for  prepositions  do  not,  like  arti- 
cles and  pronouns,  convert  the  participle  itself  hito  the  nature  of  a  substan- 
tive ;  as  we  have  sho\\u  above  in  the  phrase,  "  by  observing  which."  And 
yet  the  participle,  with  its  adjuncts,  may  be  considered  as  a  suostaiitive  phrase 
in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  tlie  preposition  or  verb,  expressed  or  un- 
derstood ;  as,  "  By  pro!}(isf7>g  much,  and  performing  but  Utile,  we  become 
despicable  ;"  "  He  studied  to  avoid  expressing  himself  too  sex-erely." 

'•'Much  depends  on  their  observing  of  the  rule."  Would  this  sentence  be 
correct  if  the  preposition  of  were  omitted  ?     Will  jcu  repeat  the  note  ? 

2. 
"  There  will  be  no  danger  of  their  ing   the    directions,  that   we 

(1.)  spoiling  their  faces,  or  of  lost  our  way." 

their  gaining  converts."  '■  In  tracing  of  his  history,  we  dis- 

"  For  his  avoiding  that  precipice,  cover  little   that  is  worthy  of 

he  is  indebted  to  his  friend's  imitation." 

care."  '•  By  reading  of  books  written  by 

"  It  was  from  our  misunderstand-  the    best    authors,    his    mind 

became  highly  improved." 
3.  As  the  perfect  participle  and  the  imperfect  tense  are  sometimes  different 
in  their  form,  care  must  be  taken  that  tliey  be  not  indiscriminately  used.  It  is 
frequently  said,  '■  He  begun,"  for  "  he  began  ;"  "  He  run,"  for  "  he  ran  ;" 
"  He  drunk,"  for  "  he  drank  ;"  the  participle  being  here  used  instead  of  (he 
imperfect  tense  :  and  much  more  frequendy  the  imperfect  tense  instead  of  the 
participle  ;  as,  "  I  had  wrote,"  for  "  I  had  written  ;"  "  I  was  chose,"  for  '•  1 
was  chosen  ;"  "  I  have  eat,"  for  "  I  have  eaten."  '■  His  words  were  inter- 
wove wiih  sighs  5"  "  were  iniencore7i."  '•'  He  would  liave  spoke  ;"  "spoken." 
"  He  halh  bore  v.-itness  to  his  faithful  servants  ;"  "  borne."  "  By  this  means 
he  overrun  his  guide  j"  "  oparran."  "The  sun  has  rose;"  "  risc7i."  "His 
constitution  has  bec^  greatly  shook,  but  his  mind  is  too  strong  to  be  shook  by 
such  causes  ;"  "shaken,"  in  both  places.  "  Thej'  were  verses  wrote  on 
glass;"  "written."  "Philosophers  have  often  mistook  the  source  of  true 
happiness  ;"  it  ought  to  be,  "  mistaken." 

The  participle  e;iding  in  ed  is  often  improperly'  contracted  by  changing  ed 
into  t ;  as,  "  In  good  behavior  he  is  not  surpast  by  any  pupil  of  the  school ;" 
■■'  She  was  much  distrest ;"  they  ought  to  be,"  surpassed."  "  distressed." 

Is  it  correct  to  say,  "'  He  begun"  ?  What  is  wrono;-  in  the  expression  ? 
Will  j'ou  repeat  Note  3  ?  Can  the  participle  ending  in  ed  be  contracted  to  t, 
with  proprietv  ? 

3. 
'■'  By  too  eager  pursuit,  he  run  a     "  He    was    greatly    heated,    and 
great  risk  of  being  disappoint-  drunk  with  avidity." 

ed."  (2.)  '•  Though    his    conduct    was,    in 

"  He  had  not  long  enjoj'ed  repose,  some  respects,  exceptionable, 

before  he  began  to  be  weary  yet  he  dared  not  commit  so 

of  having  notning  to  do."  great  an  offence  asthatwluch 

was  proposed  to  him." 
(1.)  Omit  "  their."  (2.)  Picj.  jiass.  part,  used  as  a  noun. — Rule  X. 


SYNTAX.  1C3 

"  A  second  deluge  leaniiug  thus  in   every   state   in   Europe." 

o'errun,  "  Ills  resolution  was  too  strong 

And  the  monks  finished  what  the  to  he  shook  by  slight  opposi- 

Goths  begun."  tion." 

"  If  some  events  had  not  fell  out  "  He   was   not   much   restrained 

very  unexpectedly,  I   should  afterwards,  having  took  im- 

have  been  present."  proper  liberties  at  first." 

"  He  would  have   went  with  us,  "  He    has   not   yet  wore   oft'  the 

had  lie  been  invited."  rough     manners    which     he 

"  He   returned   the   goods  which  brought  with  him." 

he  had  stole,  and  made  all  the  "You    who    have    forsook    your 

reparation  in  his  power."  friends,    are    entitled    to    no 

'  They   have    chose   the    part   of  confidence." 

honor  and  virtue."  "  They  who  liave  bore  a  part  in 
'  His  vices  have  weakened  his  the  labor,  shall  share  the  re- 
mind, and  broke  his  health."  wards." 
He  had  mistook  his  true  interest,  "  When  the  rules  have  been  wan- 
and  found  iiiniself  forsook  by  tonly  broke,  there  can  be  no 
his  former  adherents."  plea  for  favor." 

"  The  bread  that  has  been  eat  is  "  He   writes  as  the  best  authors 

soon  forgot."  would  have  wrote,  had  they 

"  No     contentions     have      arose  writ  on  the  same  subject." 

amongst  them  since  their  re-  "  He  heapt  up  great  riches,  but 

conciliation."  past  his  time  miserably." 

"  The  cloth  had  no  seam,  but  was  "  He  talkt  and  stampt  with  such 

^vove  throughout."  vehemence,  that  he  was  sus- 

"  Tlie  French  language  is  spoke  pected  to  be  insane.' 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  XV. 

Adverbs,  though  they  have  no  government  of  case,  tense, 
Sfc,  require  an  approjpriate  situation  in  the  sentence^ 
viz.  for  the  most  part,  before  adjectives,  after  verbs 
active  or  neuter,  and  frequently  betiveen  the  auxiliary 
and  the  verb ;  as,  "  He  made  a  very  sensible  dis- 
course ;  he  spohe  unaffectedly  and  forcibly,  and  was 
attentively  heard  by  the  whole  assembly." 

A  few  instances  of  erroneous  positions  of  adverbs  may  serve  to  illustrate 
the  rule.  "  He  must  not  expect  to  find  study  agreeable  always  ;"  "  always 
agreeable."  "  Wc  always  find  them  ready  when  we  want  them  ;"  "  we  find 
them  always  ready,"  &c.  "  Dissertations  on  the  prophecies  which  have  re- 
markably been  fuliilled ;"  "  v.'hich  have  been  remarkably.''  "  Instead  of 
looking  contemptuously  down  on  the  crooked  in  mind  or  in  body,  we  should 
look  up  thankfully  to  God,  who  hath  made  us  better;"  "Instead  of  looking 
dowii  contemptuously,  &c.,  we  should  thankfuUy  look  up,"  &c.  "  If  thou  art 
blessed  naturally  with  a  good  memory,  continually  exercise  it ;"  "  'naturally 
blessed,"  &c.  "  exercise  it  continually." 

Sometimes  the  adverb  is  placed  with  propriety  before  the  verb,  or  at  some 
distaaice  after  it ;  sometimes  between  the  two  auxiliaries  ;  and  sometimes  af- 
ter them  both  ;  as  in  the  following  examples  :  "  Vice  always  creeps  by  de- 
grees, and  insensibly  twines  aromid  us  those  concealed  fetters,  by  wliich  we 
are  at  last  completely  bound."  "  He  encouraged  the  English  barons  to  carry 
their  opposition  farther  ;"  "  They  compelled  Kim  to  declare  that  he  would  ab- 
jure the  realm /orerer ,"  instead  of;  "  to  carry  farther  their  opposition  f  and 


164  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

"  to  abjure  forever  the  realm."  "  He  has  gemralhj  been  reckoned  an  hon- 
est man  ;"  "  The  book  may  always  be  liad  at  surh  a  plare  ;"  in  preference 
to  "  has  been  g-encrally,"  and  "  may  be  always."  '■  These  rules  will  bo 
clearly  understood,  alter  lliey  have  been  diligenilij  studied,"  is  prelerable  to 
"These  rules  v\ill  clearlij  be  understood,  after  they  have  dilio-enth/  been 
studied."  "^       •' 

From  the  preceding  remarks  and  examples,  it  appears  that  no  exact  and 
determmate  rule  can  be  given  for  the  placing  of  adverbs,  on  all  occasions. 
The  general  rule  may  be  of  considerable  use;  but  the  easy  flow  and  perspicu- 
ity of  the  phrase,  are  the  things  vvliich  ought  to  be  chiefly  regarded. 

The  adverb  there  is  often  used  as  an  expletive,  or  as  a  word  that  adds 
nothuig  to  the  sense  ;  in  which  case  it  precedes  the  verb  and  the  nominative 
noun  ;  as,  "  There  is  a  person  at  the  door  ;"  "  There  are  some  thieves  in  the 
house  ;"  which  would  be  as  well,  or  better,  expressed  by  saying,  "  A  person 
is  at  the  door  ;"  "  Some  thieves  are  in  the  house."  Sometimes,  it  is  made 
use  of  to  give  a  small  degree  of  emphasis  to  the  sentence  ;  as,  "  'Tliere  was  a 
man  sent  from  God,  whose  name  was  John."  When  it  is  applied  in  its  strict 
sense,  it  principally  follows  the  verb  and  the  nominative  case  ;  as  "  The  man 
stands  there."  ' 

What  word  is  misplaced  in  the  sentence,  "  He  must  not  expect  to  And  study 
agreeable  always"  ?  Will  you  correct  the  sentence,  and  give  the  Rule  for 
(he  position  of  adverbs  ?  How  is  the  adverb  sometimes  placed  with  respect 
to  the  verb  ?     With  respect  to  the  auxiliary  ? 

"  He  was  pleasing-  not  often,  (1.)  great  hopes   to  his  friends." 

because  Jie  was  vain."  "  Not  only  lie  found  her  employ- 

"  AVilliani  jioldij  acted,  tliough  he  ed,  but  pleased  and   tranquil 

was  uns'.iceessful."  also." 

"  We    may   happlhj    Virr,   though  "  We   ahvays   should   prefer    our 

our  possessions  are  small."  duty  to  our  pleasure." 

"  From  whence  (2.)  we  may  date  '•  It  is  "impo.ssible  continually  to 

likewise    the    period    of    this  be  at  work." 

Pvent."  "  The  heavenly  bodies  are  in  mo- 

"  It  cannot  be  isnperlinent  or  ri-  tion  perpetually." 

diculous,  therefore,  to  re  nion-  "Having   not  known,  or  having 

strate."  not  considered,  tl  e  measures 

"  He   oflfered    an   apology,  which  proposed,    he    failed    of  sue- 
not  being  admitted,  he  became  cess." 
submissive."  "  My  opinion  was  given  on  rather 

"  These   things  should   be  never  a  (.'').)   cursory  perusal  of  the 

separated."  book." 

"Unless  he   have    more   govern-  "  It  is  too  common  with  mankind, 

ment  of  himself,  he   will   be  to   be    engrossed,    and    over- 

always  discontented."  come     totally,      by      present 

"  jXever  (3.)  sovereign  was  (4.)  so  events." 

much  beloved  by  the  people."  "  When  the  Romans  v.'ere  pressed 

"  He    was    determined    to    invite  with    a    foreign    enemy,    the 

back  the  king,  and  to  call  to-  women  contributed  all  their 

gether  his  friends."  rings  and  jcv.'els  voluntarily, 

"  So   well   educated  a  boy  gives  to  assist  the  government." 

I.  The  ad\erb  nerrr  generally  precedes  the  verb;  as,  "I  never  was 
•  nere  ;"  ''  He  never  comes  at  a  proper  time."  When  an  auxiliary  is  used,  it 
is  placed  indifterenlly,  either  bciore  or  after  this  adverb  ;  as,  "He  vvas  never 
seen  (or  never  was  seen)  to  laugh  from  that  time."  A'i'i-er  seems  to  be  im- 
]>ropf>rly  used  in  tlio  following  passages  ;  "  Ask  me  never  so  much  dowry  and 
gift."  "  If  I  make  my  hands  never  so  clean."  "  Charm  he  never  so  wisely.' 
The  word  erer  would  be  more  suitable  to  the  sense. 

(l.)"n0ti>ftenpletising:"  (2.)  .iSn.  (3.)  "  .Vo."  (4.)  "  eufr  so."- 

l5  )  "  <j  rather. "—KiiU-  [7C, 


SYNTAX.  165 

How  is  llie  adverb  tiever  generally  placed  wiih  respect  to  the  verb  7  Give 
an  example.  Give  aii  example  where  the  word  never  is  improperly  used  in- 
stead of  ever. 

1. 
"  They  could  not  persuade  him,    "  If  some  persons'  opportunities 
though    they    were    never   so  were  never  so  favorable,  they 

eloquent."  would  be  indolent  to  improve 

them." 

2.  Ill  imitation  of  the  Krcnch  idiom,  liie  adverb  of  place  where  is  often  used 
instead  of  the  pronoun  relative  ami  a  preposition.  "  They  framed  a  protesta- 
tion, wliere  they  repeated  all  their  former  claims  ;"  i.  e.  "  in  which  they  re- 
peated." "  The  king  was  still  determined  to  run  forwards,  in  the  same  course 
where  he  was  already,  by  his  precipitate  career,  too  fatally  advanced;"  i.  e. 
"  in  which  he  was."     Jiul  it  would  be  belter  to  avoid  this  mode  of  expression. 

The  adverbs  hence,  Iheiice,  and  whence,  imply  a  preposition  ;  for  they  signi- 
fy ''  from  this  place,"  ''  from  that  place,"  •'  from  what  place."  It  seems, 
therefore,  strictly  speaking,  to  be  improper  to  join  a  preposition  with  them, 
because  it  is  superfluous;  as,  '■  This  is  the  le\iathan,  from  whence  the  wits  of 
our  age  are  said  to  borrow  their  weapons ;"  "  An  ancient  author  prophesies 
from  hence."  But  the  origin  of  these  words  is  little  attended  to,  and  the 
preposition  from  so  often  used  in  construction  with  them,  that  the  omission  of 
!t,  in  many  cases,  would  seem  stiff,  and  be  disagreeable. 

The  adverbs  here,  there,  where,  are  often  improperly  applied  to  verbs  sig- 
nifying motion,  instead  of  the  adverbs  hither,  thither,  whither ;  as,  "  He  came 
/j«ce  hastily ;"  "  They  rode /Aere  with  speed."  They  should  be,  "  He  came 
hither ;"  "They  rode  thither,"  &c. 

"  They  framed  a  protestation  where  they  repeated  all  their  former  claims." 
Will  you  correct  this  sentence,  and  repeat  Note  2  ? 

2. 

"  lie  drew  up  a  petition,  ichere  he  "  George   is  active  ;    he  walked 

too  freely  represented  his  own  there  in  less  than  an  hour." 

merits."  (1.) 

"  His  follies  had  reduced  him  to  "  Where  are  you  all  going  in  such 

a  situation  where  he  liad  much  haste  .'" 

to  fear,  and  nothing  to  hope."  "Whither  have  they  been  since 
"  It  is  reported    that   the   prince  they  left  the  city  .'" 

will  come  he7-e  to-morrow." 

3.  We  have  some  examples  of  adverbs  being  used  for  svibstaiitlves  :  "  In 
1687,  he  erected  it  into  a  community  of  regulars,  since  tvhen  it  has  begun  to 
increase  in  those  countries  as  a  religious  order ;"  i.  e.  "  since  ivhich  time." 
"A  little  while,  and  I  shall  not  see  you  ;"  i.  e.  "  a  short  time."  "  It  is  worth 
their  while  ;"  i.  e.  "  it  deserves  their  time  and  pains."  But  this  use  of  the 
word  rather  suits  familiar  than  grave  style.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the 
phrase,  "  To  do  a  thing  «;7!//(0!t' ;"  i.e.  "  in  anj'  lUcUincr  :"  or,  "somehow;" 
I.e.  "in  some  manner."  "  Somehow,  worthy  as  these  people  are,  they  are 
under  the  influence  of  prejudice." 

Will  you  repeat  this  not«,  and  give  an  example  under  it  ? 

3. 

"  Charles  left  the  seminary  too     "  Nothing   is    better    worth    tlie 
early,    since    when    he    has  while  (3.)  of  young  persons, 

made    very     little     improve-  than  the  acquisition  of  knowl- 

ment."  (2.)  edge  and  virtue." 

(1.)  Rule  XXII.     (2.)  "  and  from  that  time  he,"  &c. ;  or,  "  and  has  since  made,"  &C. 
(3.)  "  the  time  and  attention  of,"  &;c. 


JW  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Kiri.z:  XIX. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  G'ammar, 
RULE  XVI. 

Tivo  negatives,  in  the  same  simple  sentence,  art  equiva- 
lent to  an  affirmative  ;  as,  "  Nor  did  they  not  per- 
ceive him  ;"  i.  e'.  "  They  did  perceive  him." 

It  is  better  to  express  an  affirmation  by  a  regular  affirmative,  than  by  two 
separate  negatives,  as  in  the  former  sentence  ;  but  when  one  of  the  negatives 
is  joined  to  another  «ord,  as  in  the  latter  sentence,  the  two  negatives  form  a 
pleasing  and  delicate  variet}'  of  expression. 

Some  writers  have  improperly  empl«yed  two  negatives  instead  of  one ;  as 
in  the  following  instances  :  "  1  never  did  repent  of  doing  good,  nor  shaJl  not 
now  ;"  "  7ior  slia/l  I  now."  "  Never  no  imitator  grew  up  to  iiis  author ;" 
"  never  did  any,"  &c.  "  1  cannot  by  no  means  allow  him  what  his  argiunent 
must  prove  ;"  "  I  cannot  by  any  means,"  &c.  ;  or,  "  /  can  by  no  means." 
''  Nor  let  no  comforter  approach  me ;"  "  nor  let  a7iy  comforter,"  &c.  "  Nor 
is  danger  ever  apprehended  in  such  a  government,  no  more  than  we  common- 
ly apprehend  danger  from  thunder  or  earthquakes  5''  it  should  be^  "  anymore." 
"  Ariosto.  Tasso,  Galileo,  ?io  more  than  Raphael,  were  not  born  m  republics  ;" 
"  Neither  Ariosto,  Tasso,  nor  Galileo,  any  more  than  Raphael,  was  bom  in  a 
republic." 

Should  we  express  an  affirmation  by  an  affirmative,  or  by  two  separate 
negatives  ?     Will  you  give  an  example  of  the  improper  use  of  two  negatives  7 

"Neither  riches  nor  honors,  nor  "  Do  not  interrupt  me  yourselves, 
no  such  perishing  goods,  can  nor  let  no  one  disturb  my  re- 
satisfy  the  desires  of  an  im-  tirement." 
mortal  spirit."  "  These  people  do  not  judge  wise- 

"  Be  honest,  nor  fake   710   shape  ly,  nor  take  no  p  roper  measure 

nor  semblance  of  disguise."  to  effect  their  j  urpose." 

"  We  need  not,  nor  (1.)  do  not,  "  The  measure  is  so  exception- 
confine  his  operations  to  nar-  able,  that  we  cannot  by  no 
row  limits."  means  permit  it." 

"  I  am    resolved    jiot   to  comply  "  I  have  received  no  information 

with  the  proposal,  neither  at  on  the  subject,  neither  from 

present,    nor    at    any    other  him  nor  from  his  friend." 

time."  "  Precept  nor  discipline  is  not  so 

"  There  cannot  be  nothing  more  forcible  as  example." 

insignificant  than  vanity."  "  The    king  nor  the   queen  wai 

'  Nothing  never  affected  her  so  not  ail  deceived  in  the  busi- 

nuich,  as  this  misconduct  of  ness." 
her  child." 

RUZ.!;    X. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE   XVIL 

Prepositions  govern  the  objective  case. 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  nominative  ca.se  being  used  instead  of 
lh«  objective  :  "  Who  servest  thou  under  ?'■'  "  Who  do  you  speak  to  1" 
"  We  are  still  much  at  a  loss  who  civil  power  belongs  t«."  "  Who  dost  thou 
ask  for  ?"  "  Associate  :|iot  with  those  who  none  can  speak  well  of."  In  all 
these  places,  it  ought  to  6e  "  irhom." 

The  prepositions  to  and  for  are  often  understood,  chiefly  before  the  pro- 
nouns :  as,  "  Give  me  the  book  ;"  "  Get  me  some  paper  ;"  that  is,  "  to  me," 

(1,)  "and  do." 


SYNTAX.  ICf 

"forme."     "  Wo  is  me  ;"  i.e.  "  <o  me."     "He  was  banislictl   England)" 
I.  e.  "from  England." 

"  Who  do  you  speak  to  7''     ^^'ill  you  correct  tliis  sentence,  and  explain 
why  it  is  wrong  ?     "  Give  me  the  book."     What  is  understood   in  iJiis  sen- 
tence ? 
"  We  are  all  accountable  creatures,  to  ?     Wlio    does  he    olTer    such 

each  for  Itisse/f."  language  to  ?'' 

"  They  willingly,  and   of  theirselves,     "  It    was  not    lie  that   tliey   were  so 

endeavored  to  make  up  the  difi'or-  ^"S'''.V  vvllh." 

ence."  '■'  What  concord  can  subsist  between 

"  He  laid  the  suspicion  upon    some-  those   who    commit    crimes,   and 

body,    I   know    not   uho,   in   the  ^/fi/ (2.)  who  abhor  them  ?" 

company."  "The  person  wlio   I   travelled  with, 

"I    hope  it   is  not  I  ivho  (1.)  he  is  has  sold  the  horse  which  1)6  rode 

displeased  with."  on  during  our  journev." 

"  To  poor  we,  there  is  not  much  hope     "  It  is  not  I  he  is  fiigaged  with." 

remaining."  "  Who  did  he  receive  thai  intelligence 

"  Does  that  boy  know  who  he  speaks  from  V 

1.  The  preposition  is  often  separated  from  the  relal  ve  which  it  governs  ; 
as,  "  Whom  wilt  thou  give  it  to  V  instead  of.  "  'J'o  wlto^n  will  thou  give  it  ?" 
"  He  is  an  author  whom  I  am  much  delighted  with  ;"  "  'J"he  world  is  too  po- 
lite to  shock  authors  wilh  a  truth,  which  generally  their  booksellers  are  the  first 
that  inform  them  of."  This  is  an  idiom  to  which  our  language  is  strong!  v  in- 
clined ;  it  prevails  in  comm  jn  conversation,  and  suits  very  well  wilh  the  fa- 
miliar Style  in  writing  :  but  the  placing  of  the  preposition  before  the  relative  i& 
more  graceful,  as  well  as  more  perspicuous,  and  agrees  much  better  with  th« 
solemn  and  elevated  style. 

Will  you  repeat  this  Note,  and  give  an  example  under  it  ? 
1. 
"  To  have  no  one  whom  we  heartily     "  He  is  a  friend  whom  I  am  highly 
wish  well  to,  and  whom  we  are  indebted  to." 

warmly   concerned  for,  is  a  de- 
plorable state." 

2.  Some  writers  separate  the  preposition  from  its  noun,  in  order  to  connect 
different  prepositions  with  the  same  noun  ;  as,  "  To  suppose  the  zodiac  and 
planets  to  be  efficient  of.  and  antecedent  to,  themselves."  This,  whether 
m  the  familiar  or  the  solemn  style,  is  always  inelegant,  and  should  general- 
ly' be  avoided.  In  forms  of  law,  and  the  like,  where  fulness  aixl  exactness, 
of  expression  must  take  place  of  every  other  consideration,  it  mav  be  admit- 
ted. 

Is  it  correct  to  separate  the  preposition  from  the  noun  whioJi  it  governs  ?.' 
When  may  it  be  admitted  ? 

2. 
"  On  these  occasions,  the  pronoun  is     "They  were  refused  entrance  into,  awdl 
governed  by,  (3.)  and  consequently  forcibly  driven  from,  the  house;" 

agrees  with,  the  preceding  word." 

3.  Different  relations,  and  different  senses,  must  be  expressed  by  different' 
prepositions,  though  in  conjunction  wilh  the  same  verb  or  adjective."  Thus  we- 
say,  "  To  converse  tvltli  a  |)crson,  upon  a  subject,  in  a  house,"  &e.  We  also 
say,  "  We  are  disappo!Mle<l  of  a  thing,"  when  vve  caiuiot  get  it,  "  nnddisap- 
pointod  in  it,"  when  we  liave  it,  and  find  it  docs  not  answer  our  expcctalion->. 
But  two  ditrerciit  preposilioi  s  must  be  imjjroper  in  iho  same  construction,  and 
in  the  same  sentence  ;  as,  "  The  combat  betwt^en  thiriv  French  against  twenty 
English." 

In  some  cases,  it  is  difficult  to  say.  to  which  of  two  prepositions  the  prefer- 
ence is  to  be  given,  as  both  are  used  promiscuously,  ami  custom  hns  not  de- 
cided in  favor  of  either  of  them.  We  say,  "  Expert  at,"  and  "  Expert  in  a 
thing  ;"  "  Expert  at  finding  a  remedy  for  his  mistakes  ;"  "  Expert  in  decep- 
tion." 

(I.)  "  MoUh  whom.'"  (2.)  "  thou.        (3.)  "  by  the  preceding  word,  »nd  tonmiumtly  agrta  xmlh  it.' 


168  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

When  prepositions  are  subjoined  to  nouns,  they  are  generally  the  same  that 
are  subjoined  to  the  verbs  from  which  the  nouns  are  derived ;  as,  "A  compli- 
ance vjith,"  "  to  comply  with  ;"  "  A  disposition  to  tyranny,"  "  disposea  to 
tyrannize." 

Do  we  express  dift'erent  relations  and  different  sense  by  the  same,  or  a  dif- 
ferent preposition  ? 

3. 
"We  are  often  disappointed  0/ things,  pany,  but  have  always  hitherto 

which,  before  possession,   prom-  been  disappointed  in  that  pleas- 

ised  much  enjoyment."  ure." 

"  I  have  frequently  desired  their  com- . 

4.  As  an  accurate  and  appropriate  use  of  the  preposition  is  of  great  impor- 
tance, we  shall  select  a  considerable  number  of  examples  of  impropriety  in  the 
application  of  this  part  of  speech. 

1st,  With  respect  to  the  preposition  of.  "He  is  resolved  of  going  to  the 
Persian  court ;"  "  071  going,"  &c.  "  Pie  was  totally  dependent  of  the  Papal 
crown  5"  "  on  the  Papal,"  &c.  "  To  call  of  a  person,"  and  "  to  wait  of  him ;" 
"  on  a.  person,"  &c.  "  He  was  eager  of  recommending  it  to  his  fellow-citi- 
zens ;"  "  in  recommending,"  &c.  Of  is  sometimes  omitted,  and  sometimes 
inserted,  after  worthy ;  as.  '•  It  is  worthy  observation,"  or,  "  of  observation." 
But  it  would  have  been  better  omitted  in  the  following  sentences  :  "  The  em- 
ulation, who  should  serve  their  country  best,  no  longer  subsists  among  them, 
but  q/'wlio  should  obtain  the  most  lucrative  command."  "  The  rain  hath  been 
falling  of  a  long  time  ;"  "  falling  a  long  time."  "  It  is  situation  chiefly  which 
decides  of  the  fortune  and  characters  of  men  ;"  "  decides  the  fortune,"  or, 
"concerning  the  fortune."  "  He  found  the  greatest  difficulty  of  writing;"  "in 
writing."  "  It  might  have  given  me  a  greater  taste  of  its  antiquities."  A 
taste  of  a  thing  implies  actual  enjoyment  of  it ;  but  a  taste  for  it,  implies  only 
a  capacity  for  enjoyment.  "  This  had  a  much  greater  share  of  inciting  him, 
than  ajij-  regard  after  his  father's  commands ;"  "  share  in  inciting,"  ana  "  re- 
gard to  his  father's,"  &c. 

2d,  With  respect  to  the  prepositions  to  and  for.  "You  have  bestowed 
your  favors  to  the  most  deserving  persons  ;"  "  upon  the  most  deservn'ng,"  &c. 
"  He  accused  the  ministers  for  betraying  the  Dutch  ;"  "  of  having  betrayed." 
"His  abhorrence  to  that  superstitious  figure;"  "©/"that,"  &c.  "  A  great 
change  to  the  better  ;"  "for  tlie  better."  "  Your  prejudice  to  my  cause  ;" 
"against."  "  The  English  were  very  different  people  then  to  what  they  are 
at  present ;"  "from  what,"  &c.  "  In  compliance  to  the  declaration  ;"  "with," 
&c.  "  It  is  more  i'.nn  tiicy  thought  for  ;"  "  thought  of."  "  There  is  no  need 
for  it ;"  "  of  it."  For  is  superfluous  in  the  phrase,  "  More  than  he  knows 
for."  "  No  discouragement  for  the  authors  to  proceed  ;"  "  to  the  authors," 
&c.  It  was  perfectly  m  compliance  to  some  persons ;"  "  tcilh."  "  The  wisest 
princes  need  not  think  it  any  diminution  to  their  greatness,  or  derogation  to 
their  sufHcienc}'.  to  rely  upon  counsel;"  "  diminution  q/",''  and  "derogation 
from." 

3d,  With  respect  to  the  prepositions  with  and  upon.  "  Reconciling  himself 
with  the  king."  "  Those  tilings  v.-hich  have  the  greatest  resemblance  with 
each  other,  frpquenll  v  differ  the  most."  "  That  such  rejection  should  be  con- 
sonant with  our  common  nature."  "  Conformable  with,"  &c.  "  The  history 
of  Peter  is  agreeable  with  the  sacred  texts."  In  all  the  above  instances,  it 
should  be  "  to,"  instead  of  "  with."  '■  It  is  a  use  that,  perhaps,  I  should  not 
have  thouglit  on  ;"  "  thought  oT."  "  A  greater  quantity  may  be  taken  from 
the  heap,  without  making  anj'  sensible  alteration  upon  it ;"  "  inh."  "  Intmst- 
ed  to  persons  on  wiiom  tlie  jiarliament  could  confide;"  "in  whom."  "He 
was  made  much  on  at  Argos  ;"  "  much  of."  "  If  policy  can  prevail  upon 
force  ;"  "  orer  force."     "  I  do  likewise  dissent  with  tlie  examiner;"  "from." 

4th,  With  respect  to  the  prepositions  in,  from,  iic.  "  They  should  be  in- 
formed in  some  parts  of  his  character  ;"  "  aoouf,"  or  "concerning."  "Upon 
such  occasions  as  fell  into  their  cognizance  ;"  "  under."  "  That  variety  of 
factions  into  which  we  are  still  engaged  ;"  "  in  which."  "  To  restore  myself 
into  the  favor ;"  "  to  the  favor."  "Could  he  have  profited  from  his  repeated 
experiences  ;"  "  by.'     From  seems  to  be  superfluous  aSier  forbear ;   as,  ''  He 


SYNTAX. 


1(39 


could  npl  forbear  from  appoinlinff  tlie  pope,"  &c.  "  A  strict  oliservaiice  after 
liincs  ank  fasliipiis  ;''  "  of  limes.  "  Tlie  character  wiiicii  we  may  now  value 
ourselves  by  drawing;"  "  upon  drawing'."  "  Neither  of  them  shall  make  me 
swerve  out  of  the  path  ;"  "from  the  path."  "  Ye  blind  guides,  which  strain  at 
u.  ffiiat,  and  swallow  a  camel ;"  it  ought  to  be,  "  w  hicli  strain  out  a  gnat,  or, 
take  a  gnat  out  of  the  liquor  by  stralnnig  it."  Tiio  impropriety  of  the  prepo- 
sition has  wholly  destroyed  the  meaning  of  the  phrase. 

The  preposition  among  generally  implies  a  number  of  things.  It  cannot 
be  properly  used  in  conjunction  with  the  word  every,  which  is  in  tlie  singular 
number  ;  as,  "  Which  is  found  among  every  species  of  liberty  ;"  "  The  opuiion 
secfiis  to  gain  ground  among  every  bod}'." 

"  He  is  resolved  of  going  to  the  Persian  court."  Will  you  correct  this  sen- 
tence ?  "  You  have  bestowed  your  favors  to  the  most  deserving  persons." 
How  sliould  this  sentence  be  altered  ? 

"  Reconciling  himself  with  the  king."  What  inaccuracy  is  there  in  this  sen- 
tence ?  "  Tliey  sliould  be  informed  in  some  parts  of  his  character."  Will 
you  correct  this  sentence  i 

4. 


"  She  finds  a  difficulty  of  fixing  her 
mind." 

"  Her  sobriety  is  no  derogation  to 
her  understanding." 

"  There  was  no  water,  and  he  died 
for  (1.)  thirst." 

"We  can  fully  confide  on  (2.)  none 
but  the  truly  good." 

"  I  have  no  occasion  of  his  services." 

"  Many  have  profited  from  good  ad- 
vice." 

^'  Sfany  ridiculous  practices  have  been 
brought  in  vogue." 

"  The  error  was  occasioned  by  com- 
pliance to  earnest  entreaty." 

"  This  is  a  principle  in  unison  to  our 
nature.'" 


part  of  Britain  to  their  own 
power." 

"  He  lives  opposite  the  royal  e.K- 
change." 

"  Tlieir  house  is  situated  to  the  north- 
east side  of  the  road." 

"  The  pcilbrmance  was  approved  of 
b)'  all  who  understood  it." 

'•'  He  was  accused  with  having  acted 
unfairly." 

"  She  has  an  abhorrence  to  all  deceit- 
fa\  conduct." 

"  They  were  some  distance  (4.)  from 
home,  when  the  accident  hap- 
pened." 

"  His  deportment  was  adapted  for 
conciliating  regard." 


"  \Ye  should  entertain  no  prejudices     "  My  fatlicr  writes  me  very  frequent- 


to  simple  and  rustic  persons. 

"  They  are  at  present  resolved  of  do- 
ing their  duty." 

"  That  boy  is  knowni  under  the  name 
of  the  idler." 

"  Though  conformable  with  custom, 
it  is  not  warrantable." 

"  This  remark  is  founded  in  truth." 

"  His  parents  think  on  him  and  his 
improvements,  with  pleasure  and 
hope." 

"  His  excuse  was  admitted  of  by  (3.) 
his  master." 

'*  What  went  ye  out  for  to  see  V 

"There  appears  to  have  been  a  mill- 
ion men  brought  into  the  field." 

"  His  present  was  accepted  of  by  his 
friends." 

"  More  tlian  a  thousand  of  men  were 
destroyed." 

"  It  is  my  request  that  he  will  be  par- 
ticular in  speaking  to  the  follow- 
ing points." 

"  The    Saxons   reduced    the  greater 


ly." 

"  Their  conduct  was  agreeable  with 
their  profession." 

'■'  We  went  leisurely  above  stairs,  and 
came  hastily  below.  We  shall 
write  up  stairs  this  forenoon,  and 
down  stairs  in  tlie  afternoon." 
"  The  politeness  of  the  world  has 
the  same  resemblance  with  benev- 
olence, that  the  shadow  has  with 
its  substance." 

'•'  He  had  a  taste  of  such  studies,  and 
pursiied  them  earnestly." 

"  When  we  have  had  a  true  taste  for 
the  pleasures  of  virtue,  we  can 
have  no  relish  for  those  of  vice." 

"  How  happy  it  is  to  know  how  to 
live  at  times  by  one's  self,  to  leave 
one's  self  in  regret,  to  find  one's 
self  again  with  pleasure !  The 
world  is  then  less  necessary  for 
us." 

"  Civility  makes  its  way  among  every 
kind  of  persons."    . 


{I.)  "of." 


n.) 
15 


<4.)  R.  xxn. 


l70 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


6.  Tlie  preposition  to  is  made  use  of  before  nouns  of  place,  when  they  fbi- 
low  verbs  and  participles  of  motion  •,  as,  "  J  went  to  London  ;"  "  1  am  going 
to  loini."  Bui  the  preposition  ut  is  >;;eiieraliy  used  after  the  neuter  verb  to  be ; 
as,  '•  I  liave  been  at  London  ;"'  "  1  was  at  the  plaee  appointed  ;"  "  I  shall  be 
at  Paris."  We  likewise  say,  "  He  touched,  arrived  at  any  place."  The 
preposition  in  is  set  before  countries,  cities,  and  large  towns  ;  as,  "  He  lives 
iJi  France,  in  London,  or  in  Birmiiigiiam."  But  betore  villages,  shiglc  houses, 
and  cities  which  are  in  distant  countries,  at  is  used  ;  as,  "  He  lives  at  Hack- 
uey  ;"  "  He  resides  at  Moiiipellier." 

It  is  a  matter  of  imtiffereiice,  with  respect  to  the  pronoun  one  a7^o</^er,  wheth 
er  the  preposition  of  he  t)laoed  between  the  two  parts  of  it,  or  before  them 
both.  We  may  say,  "  They  were  jealous  of  one  another  j"  or,  "  They  were 
jealous  one  of  anodier  ;"  but  perhaps  the  former  is  better. 

Participles  are  frequently  used  as  prepositions  ;  as,  excepting,  respecting, 
tmicldiig,  concerniitg,  according.  '"  They  were  all  in  fault  except  or  excepting 
htm." 

How  is  the  preposition  to  used  widi  nouns  of  place  ?  Give  an  example 
Arc  participles  ever  used  as  prepositions  '/     Give  an  example. 

5. 
"  I  have  been  to  London,  after  having'  are  going  for  Liverpool.      Thej 

resided  a  year  at  France ;  and  1  intend   to   reside   some    time   in 

now  live  at  Islington."  Ireland." 

"They  have  just  landed  in  Hull,  and 

RTTIiS:    XI. 

Corresponilius;  with  Murray's  Graiiimar, 
RULE  XVII L 

Conjunctions  nsuaJhj  connect  verbs   of  the  same   mood 
and  tense,  and  no^ins  or  j)ronou,ns  of  the  same  case. 

A  few  examples  of  inaccuracy  respecting  this  rule  may  further  display  its 
utility.  "  If  ho  prefer  a  virtuous  life,  and  is  sincere  in  his  professions,  he  will 
succeed  ;''  ''  if  he  prefers.''  "  To  deride  the  miseries  of  tiie  unhappy,  is  in- 
human ;  and  wanting  compassion  towards  them,  is  unchristian  ;"  "  and  to  want 
compassion."  "  The  parliament  addressed  the  king,  and  has  been  prorogued 
the  same  dav;"  "  and  was  prorogued."  "  His  wealth  and  him  bid  adieu  to 
each  other  ;'  •'  and  /ic"  "  He  entreyled  us,  my  comrade  and  I,  to  live  har- 
moniously ;"  '•  comrade  and  me.''  "  My  sister  and  her  were  on  good  terms;" 
"  and  she."  "  We  often  overlook  the  l)lessings  which  are  in  our  possession, 
and  are  searching  after  those  which  are  out  of  our  reach ;"  it  ought  to  be, 
"  and  search  alter." 

"  His  wealth  and  him  bid  adieu  to  each  other."     Will  j'ou  c6rrect  this  sen- 
tence, and  give  the  rule  for  Conjunctions  ? 
"Professing  regard,  and  to  art  (1.)  proceeding    temperately    in    the 

difforenth',  discover  abase  mind."  pursuit  ol' them,  is  the  best  way 

"  Rid  he  not  tell  me  his  fault,  and  eit-  to  ensure  success." 

freu/frf  me  to  forgive  him  !"  "Between   him  and  I  there  is  some 

"My  brother  and  him  are  tolerable  disparity  of  years  ;  but  none  be- 

granmiarians."  tw(!eii  him  and  she." 

"  If  he  understand  the  sul>jci-t,  and     "  By  forming  themselves  on  fantastic 

ifttends  to  it  industriously,  he  can  modids.  and  ready  to  vie  with  one 

scarcely  fail  of  success."  another  in  the  reigiiing  follies,  the 

"  You  and  us  enjoj'  majiy  privileges."  young  begin  with  being  ridiculous. 

"  She   and    him  are   very   itiihappily  and  end  with  being  vicious  ana 

comiected."  immoral." 

"  To  be  moderate  in  our  views,  and 

\.  Conjunctions  are,  indeed,  frequeiUly  made  to  connect  different  moods 
and  tenses  of  verbs  ;   but  in  these  instances,  the  nominative  must  generally,  i< 

( I.)  "  utia;,"  or,  "  To  frcfus  regard,  and  to  Mf , "  ht. 


SYNTAX.  171 

not  always,  be  repealed,  wliicli  is  not  necessary,  Ihou^li  it  may  l>e  done,  under 
tlie  cousiructioii  lo  wliuli  llie  rule  relbrs.  We  may  say,  "  lie  /icca- lem|)iralp- 
ly,  and  lie  siioukl  live  leiiiperalcly  ;"  "  He  nuii/  return,  Imt  he  wiil  iiol  conliii- 
ne  :"  "  She  wds  proud,  llioLijIi  she  is  now  huniiilc  :"  Imt  it  is  obvious,  that,  in 
such  cases,  the  noniiiuUive  ought  to  be  repeated;  and  thai,  by  this  means,  llie 
lailer  members  of  these  sentences  are  rendered  not  so  slricily  dependent  on  the 
preceding',  as  lliose  arc  which  come  under  this  rule.  Wiien,  in  the  progress 
of  a  sentence,  we  pass  from  ihe  a(Iir:nativc  lo  the  nefrali\«  iorin,  or  from  tlic 
negative  to  the  allirmalivc,  the  subject  or  nouilnalive  is  always  resumeii  ;  us, 
■'  lie  is  ricli,  but  lie  is  not  respeclable."  There  appears  to  be,  in  geiieriU, 
equal  reason  for  repealing  llic  nominative,  and  resuming'  the  subject,  when  the 
course  of  the  seiUcnce  is  tli  verted  by  a  change  of  the  mocxi  or  tense.  The  fol- 
lowing sentences  may  therefore  be  improvecl  :  •'  Anger  glances  into  the  breast 
of  a  wise  man,  but  will  rest  011I3'  in  the  bosom  of  fools  ;"  •'  l>ut  rests  only  ;"  or, 
•'•  but  it.  will  rest  only."  "  Virtue  is  praised  by  many,  and  would  be  desired 
also,  if  her  worth  were  really  known  ;"  '•  and  slie  would."  "  The  world  be- 
gins to  recede,  ;uid  will  soon  disappear;"'  "  and  it  v\ill." 

Do  conjunctions  ever  connect  dillcrent  moods  and  tenses  of  verbs  7  Wiiat 
case  must  generally  be  repeated  iu  such  instances  /     Give  an  example. 

1. 

"  We  have  met  with  many  disappoint-  great  riches,  but  do  not  command 

ments  ;  and,  if  life  continue,  shall  esteem. " 

(l.)   probably   meet    with    many  "  Our    seasons   of  improvement   are 
more.'"                     ■  short,  and,  whether  used  or  not, 

"  Rank  may  confer  influence,  but  will  will  soon  pass  away." 

(2.)  not  necessarily  produce  vir-  '^  He  might  have  been  happy,  and  is 
tue."  now  (3.)  fully  convinced  of  it." 

"He  does  not  want  courage,  but  is  "  Learning  strengtheis  the  mind,  and, 
defective  in  sensibility."  if  properly  ai)pbed,  will   improve 

"These  people  have  indeed  acquired  our  morals  too." 

RUXix:  XXVIII. 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar 
RULE   Xix. 

Some  conjunctions  require  ihe  indicative,  some  the  sub- 
junctive, mood  after  them.  It  is  a  general  rule,  that 
tvhen  something  contingent  or  doubtful  is  implied,  the 
subjunctive  ought  to  be  used;  as,  '^  If  I  were  to  vvrile, 
he  would  not  regard  it ;"  "  He  will  not  be  par- 
doned, imless  he  repent." 

Conjunctions  that  arc  of  a  positive  and  absolute  nature 
require  the  indicative  mood.  ^'As  virtue  advances, 
so  vice  recedes ;"  "  He  is  healthy,  because  he  is  tem- 
perate." 

The  conjunctions  if,  though,  unless,  except,  irhether,  &c.,  generally  re(|uire 
the  subjunctive  mood  after  them  ;  as,  "  If  thou  he  altlicted,  repine  not  ;" 
"  Though  he  s/nif  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him  ;"  "  He  caniioi  be  clean,  mil'^ss 
he  ivash  himself;"  "  No  power,  except  it  were  given  from  above;'"  ''  Whether 
it  were  I  or  they,  so  we  preach."  But  even  these  conjunctions,  when  liie  sen- 
tence does  not  imply  doubt,  admit  of  the  indicative;"  as,  "  Though  he  is  poor, 
he  is  contented." 

The  following  example  may,  in  some  mecisure,  serve  to  illustrate  the  dis- 


17^  ENGHSil  GRAMMAR. 

tinclion  between  the  subjunflive  and  the  indicative  moods  i  "  Tliough  h«  were 
divinely  inspired,  and  spoke  tiierefore  as  the  oracles  of  God,  with  supreme  au- 
thority ;  though  he  loere  endued  with  supernatural  powers,  and  could,  there- 
fore, have  contirmed  the  truth  of  what  he  uttered,  by  iniracles ;  yet,  in  compli- 
ance with  the  way  in  which  human  nature  and  reasonable  creatures  are  usual- 
ly wrought  upon,  he  reasoned."  That  our  Saviour  was  divinely  inspired,  and 
endued  witii  supernatural  powers,  are  positions  that  are  here  taken  for  granted, 
as  not  admitting  the  least  doubt ;  they  would  therefore  have  been  better  ex 
pressed  in  the  indicative  mood  ;  "  Though  he  was  divinely  inspired ;  though 
he  was  endued  with  supernatural  powers."  The  subjunctive  is  used  in  the  lilte 
improper  manner,  in  the  following  example:  "Though  he  M'ere  a  son,  yet 
learned  he  obedience,  by  the  things  which  he  suffered."  But,  in  a  similar  pas 
sage,  the  indicative,  with  great  propriety,  is  employed  to  Uie  sam»  purpose  ; 
"  Though  he  was  rich,  yet  for  your  sakes  he  became  poor.  ' 

What  conjujictions  generally  require  the  subjmictive  mood  after  them  ? 

"If  he  acquires  (1.)  riches,  they  will     "Though  he  were  her  friend,  he  did 
corrupt  his  mind,  and  be  useless  not  attempt  to  justify  her  conduct." 

to  others."  "  Whether  he  improve  or  not,  I  can- 

"  Though  he  urges  me  3et  more  ear-  not  determine." 

nestly,  I  shall  not  comply,  miless    "  Though  the  fact  be  extraordinary,  U 
lie   advances   more   forcible   rea-  certainly  did  happen." 

sons."  "  Remember  what  thou  wert,  and  be 

"  I  shall  walk  in  the  fields  to-day,  un-  (3.)  humble." 

less  it  rains."  ''  O  that  his  heart  was   tender,  and 

"  As  the  governess  were  (2.)   present,  susceptible  of  the  woes  of  others  !" 

the  children  behaved  properly."       "Shall  then  this  verse  to  future  age 
"  She  disapproved   the  measure,  be-  pretend,  -i        . 

cause  it  were  very  improper."  Thou  wert  my  guide,  philosopher, 

"  Though  he  be  high,  he  hath  respect  and  friend  ?" 

to  the  lowly." 
1.  Lest  and  that,  annexed  to  a  command  preceding,  necessarily  reqmrc 
the  subjunctive  mood ;  as,  "  Love  not  sleep,  lest  thou  come  to  poverty  ;"  "  Re- 
prove not  a  scorner,  lest  he  hate  thee ;"    "  Take  heed  that  thou  speak  not  to 
Jaoob."  ,  .        ,        ,  •       .• 

Jf,  with  but  following  it,  when  futurity  is  denoted,  requires  the  subjunctive 
mood  ;  as,  "  //'  he  do  but  touch  the  hills,  they  shall  smoke  ;"  "  If  he  be  but 
discreet,  he  will  succeed."     But  the  indicative  ought  to  be  used,  on  this  occa- 


mit,  it  will  be  from  necessity  ;"  "  Though  he  does  submit,  he  is  not  convinced  ; 
"  If  thou  do  not  reward  this  service,  he  will  be  discoiu-aged  ;"   "  If  thou  dost 
heartily  forgive  him,  endeavor  to  forge'  ihe  offence." 

When  do  lest  and  that  require  the  suDJunctive  mood  after  them  ?     When 
does  if  require  tl»e  subjunctive  ?     When  the  indicative  ? 

"Despise  not   any   condition,  lest  it  ""If  he  do  but  speak  to  display  his 

happens  to  be  your  own."  abilities,  he  is  unworthy  ot  atlen- 

"  Let  him  that  is  sanguine  take  heed  tion."        .    ,     ,  ,    ,             .     . ,, 

lest  he  miscarries."  "  If  he  be  but  in  health,  I  am  content. 

"  Take   care   that  thou  breakest  not  "  If  he  does  promise,  he  will  certainly 

aiiy  of  the  established  rules."  perform."              _             .   . 

"  If  he  does  but  (4.)  intimate  his  de-  "  Though  he  do  praise  her,  it  is  only 

sire.it  will  be  sufficient  to  produce  for  her  beauty." 

obedience."  "  If  Aou  dost  not  forgive,  ^^erhaps 

"  At  the  time  of  his  return,  if  he  is  but  thou  wilt  not  be  forgiv-en. 

expert  in  the  business,  he  will  find  "If   thou  do   smcerely    believe    the 

employment."  truths  of  religion,  act  according- 
ly."                                            _., 

(1.)  464.  (2)  466.  (3.J  /mpero.  (4.) 664. 


SYNTAX.  173 

2.  In  the  following  instances,  the  conj miction  Ihul,  expressed  or  understood, 
seems  to  be  inipro|)erly  accompanied  with  liie  .subjunctive  mood  :  "  So  much 
she  dreaded  his  tyranny,  that  the  fate  of  her  I'ncnd  slie  iliire  not  lament ;"  "  He 
reasoned  so  artfully,  that  liis  friends  would  listen,  and  iliink  [lliat]  he  were  not 
wrong." 

Will  you  repeat  this  Nole,  and  give  an  example  under  it  ? 
2. 
"  His  confused  behavior  ma<le  it  rea-  rebuke,  dial  lie  dare  not  make  anj 

soiiable   to  suppose   that  he  were  reply." 

guilty. ■'  "  His  apolojry  was  so  plausible,  thai 

'  He  is  so  conscious  of  ileserving  the  many  belrien<lcd  him,  and  thought 

he  were  imioccxt." 

3.  The  same  conjunction  governing'  both  the  indicative  and  the  subjunctive 
moods,  in  the  same  seutenco,  and  in  the  same  circumstances,  seems  to  be  a 
great  impropriety  ;  as  in  these  instances  :  "  //'  there  />e  but  one  body  of  legis- 
lators, it  is  IK)  belter  than  a  tyranny;  i/  lliere  are  onl}'  two,  tliore  will  want  a 
casting  voice."  •'  (/'  a  mrui  hare  a  iiundred  sheep,  and  one  ot  them  is  gone 
astray,"  &c. 

May  the  samt:  conjunction  have  both  (lie  subjuiulivo  and  indicative  moods 
after  it  in  the  same  sentence  ?     Give  an  example  of  this  impropriety. 

3. 
'•  If  one  man  yreffr  a  life  of  industry,     "  No  one  cng^igcs  in  thai  ftisiness,  un- 
it is   because    he   has   an  i<lea   of  loss  he  aim  at  rcputalidii.  or  hopes 
comfort  in  wealth  ;  if  another  pre-  fur  .<^ome  singular  .•id\a]ila;>e." 
fers  a  life  of  gayeiy,  it  is  from  a     ''  Tlioui;!!  the  (K'^iirn  be  laudable,  and 
like  idea  concunnng  pleasure."                is  f.i\<iraMc  to  our  iiiicrest,  it  will 

in\'olve  ujuch  anxioly  and  labor." 

'k  Almost  all  the  irregularities  in  tlx;  conslniclion  of  nnv  langiingo,  have 
arisen  from  the  cilipiis  of  some  vvoids  which  v\'ere  originallv  inserted  in  the 
sentence,  and  made  it  regular  ;  and  it  is  prolialilc,  lluit  this  has  generally  been 
the  case  with  respect  tc  the  conjuiu-live  form  o\'  vvdrds  n:e,v  in  u>e  ;  which 
will  appear  from  the  following  examples  :  "  We  shall  (n'ert.ila- him.  though 
he  rnn  ;"  that  is,  '•  though  he  should  run."  '•  Lfn.ess  he  ■.'i7  pi  idi^i'ly.  he  will 
not  accom])lisli  his  purpose;  that  is.  '•  unless  ue  xha/l  ■,\i-\  |  ;i..!en'U-."  "  If 
he  succeed,  and  o/i.'ain  nis  end,  he  wh.  noi  r>e  the  hapnicr  li  ■■  :t  ;"  il;iit  is.  "  If 
he  s/iOJ(/t/ succeed,  and  .?/!i9.';/(i  oinaiii  nis  ea!.''  'I'iiesc  lee.iaiks  and  exam- 
ples are  designed  to  show  the  original  i.f  luany  of  our  [.rc-enl  eoiijunrtive 
forms  of  expression  ;  and  to  enalile  lli.'  stinirut  to  exaneiie  the  propriety  of 
using  them,  b}'  tracing  the  words  in  (|U<•^!io:|  ;,,  liieir  proper  origin  :;n-l  ancient 
connections.  T^ut  it  is  ii.-eess;wv  lo  lie  iviei  e  pailieuini'  mi  this  sulject,  and 
therefore  we  ,?!!all  add  a  few  i;li-.ers-a!i<'.ii<  reyisecling  it. 

That  ijarl  of  tlic  verb  \tKi(  !i  :;rMiiiii:irians  call  llie  |  f'-cnl  ti  n-^e  of  the  sub- 
junctive mood,  has  a  future  sigiii.'icaiion.  '('his  is  eff  eicd  by  var3-ing  the 
terminations  of  the  .second  an<l  third  per;eii>  siii^'-ular  o!  ihe  indicative;  as  will 
be  evident  from  the  following  examples  :  "  l!'  thou  proyyer,  thou  shouldst  be 
thankful."  ■'  Unless  he  s'l/dy  more  closely,  he  will  never  be  learned."  Some 
writers,  however,  would  express  tlicse  sentiinents  without  those  \  ariations  ; 
"  Tf  thou  prospercsf,"  kc.  ;  "  I'nlcss  he  studies."  tVc.  ;  and,  as  there  is  great 
diversity  of  practice  in  Ibis  point,  it  \<  proper  to  offer  the  luarners  a  few  re- 
marks, to  assist  them  in  ■lisiiiej.uisjiin'r  il.'e  right  app-licalion  of  tlnrse  different 
forms  of  expression.  It  may  i>e  considered  as  a  rule,  that  the  ch;;nges  of  ter 
mination  are  necessary,  when  these  tv\d  ririT.nisl.'uices  concur;  1st,  When 
the  '•■ubjeet  is  of  a  dubious  and  coiitiiiijeiit  unlere  ;  and,  'id.  When  the  verb 
has  a  reference  to  (iiliire  time,  hi  the  I'olliuviug  sentem cs,  bol'i  these  eirciim 
st;tiiees  will  be  found  to  unite:  ■'  irtluui  i/i/in-r  anollier.  llieii  will  hrul  ihvself" 
"  He  has  a  hard  heart  ;  and  if  he  ani'inne  iinpeiii'.eni.  he  niiisl  siilfer."  He 
will  maintain  his  principles,  Uiough  he  lose  his  estate."  "  W^hether  he  sjircee6 
or  not,  his  intention  is  laudable."  "  If  he  he  not  prosperous,  he  will  not  re 
pine."  "  If  a  man  siiiite  his  servant,  and  he  die,"  &c.  Kxod.  xxi.  20.  In  al 
tliese  examples,  the  things  signified  by  the  verbs  are  uncertain,  and  refer  tc 
fiilure  tim©.  But  in  the  instances  which  follow,  future  time  is  not  referred  to, 
15* 


174  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

and  therefore  a  different  construction  takes  place  :  "  If  thou  Inest  virtuously, 
thou  art  happy."  "  Unless  he  meatis  what  lie  says,  he  is  doubly  faithless." 
"  If  he  allows  the  excellence  of  Virtue,  lie  does  not  regard  her  precepts." 
"  Though  he  seems  to  be  simple  ajid  artless,  he  has  deceived  us."  "  Whether 
virtue  is  belter  than  rank  or  wealth,  admits  not  of  any  dispute."  "  If  thou  be 
lievest  with  all  thy  heart,  thou  mayesl,"  &c.  Acts  viii.  37.  There  are  many 
sentences,  introduced  b^'  conjimclions,  in  which  neither  contingency  nor  futuri- 
ty is  denoted  ;  as,  "  Though  he  excels  her  in  knowledge,  she  far  exceeds  him 
in  virtue."  ''  I  have  no  doubt  of  his  principles  ;  but  if  he  believes  the  truths  of 
religiiia,  he  does  not  act  according  to  them." 

That  both  the  circumstances  of  contingency  and  futurity  are  necessary,  as 
tests  of  the  proprietj'  of  altering  the  terminations,  will  be  evident,  bj'  inspect- 
ing the  following  examples ;  which  show  that  there  are  instances  in  which  nei- 
ther of  the  circumstance*  alone  implies  the  other.  In  the  three  examples  fol- 
lowing, contingency  is  denoted,  but  not  futurity  ;  "  If  he  thi7iks  as  he  speeiks, 
he  may  safely  oe  trusted."  "  If  he  is  now  disposed  to  it,  I  will  perform  the 
operation."  "  He  acts  uprightly,  unless  he  deceives  me."  In  tlie  following 
se.'ileiices,  futurity  is  signified,  but  not  contingency.  "  As  soon  as  the  sun 
sets,  it  will  be  cooler."  "  As  the  aulnmn  advaiwes,  these  birds  will  gradually 
cmigraie.  ' 

It  a;>pears,  from  the  tenor  of  the  examples  adduced,  that  the  rules  above 
mentioned  may  be  extended  to  assert,  that,  in  cases  wherein  contingency  and 
futr.'Pdy  Qo  not  concur,  it  is  not  proper  to  turn  the  verb  from  its  signification  of 
prebont  tune,  or  to  vary  its  form  or  termination.  The  verb  would  llien  be  in 
t!hc  n<licati\e  mood,  whatever  conjunctions  might  attend  it.  If  these  rules, 
whicii  seem  to  form  the  true  distinction  between  the  subjunctive  and  tlie  indic- 
ati\e  moods  in  this  tense,  were  adopted  and  established  in  practice,  we  should 
have,  on  this  point,  a  principle  of  decision  simple  and  precise,  and  readily  ap- 
plical^le  to  every  case  that  might  occur.  It  will,  doubtless,  sometimes  happen, 
that  on  this  occasion,  as  well  as  on  many  other  occasions,  a  strict  adherence 
to  graminntical  rules  would  render  the  language  slilif  and  formal ;  but  when 
cases  of  this  sort  occur,  it  is  belter  to  give  the  expression  a  different  turn,  Ihan 
violate  grammar  for  the  sake  of  ease,  or  even  of  elegance. 

Has  the  present  tense  of  the  subjunctive  mood  a  future  signification  ?  How 
is  this  effected  ?  What  two  circumstances  should  concur  to  render  necessary 
this  change  of  termination  ? 

Should  the  termination  be  changed  when  futurity  ajid  contingency  do  not 
concur  ?     What  mood  or  form  will  the  verb  then  be  in  ? 

4. 
"  Unless  lie  learns   faster,  he  will  be  Persevere  until   thou  gainest  the 

no  scholar."  summit :  there,  all  is  order,  beauty 

"  Though  he  y((//5,  he  shall  not  be  ut-  and  pleasure." 

lerly  cast  down."  ''If  Charlotte  desire  to  gain  esteem 

"  On  condition  that  he  comes,  I  will  and  love,  she  does  not  employ  the 

coiiicnt  to  Slav."  proper  means." 

"  However  that  affair  terminates,  (1.)     '•'  Unless  the  accountant  deceive  me, 

mv  conduct  will  be  uninipeacha-  mv  estate  is  considerably  improv- 

b!e."  ed." 

"  If  virtue  rewards  us  not  so  soon  as     "Though    self-government     produce 

wc  desire,  the   payment  will   be  some  uneasiness,  it  is  light  \vhen 

made  with  interest."  compared  with  the  pain  of  vicious 

"  Till  repentance  composes  his  mind,  indulgence." 

he  will  he  a  stranger  to  peace."        "  Whether  he  think  as  he  speaks,  time 
"  Whether   he   confesses   or  not,  the  will  discover." 

Iniih  will  certauily  be  discover-    "  If  thou  censure  uncharitably,  thou 

ed."  deserves!  no  favor." 

"  If  thou  ccnsurest  uncharitably,  thou     "  Though  Virtue  appear  severe,  she 

wilt  be  enlitlcd  to  no  favor!"  is  truly  amiable." 

"  Though,  at  times,  the  ascent  to  the     "  Though  success  be  very  doubtful,  it 

tcinple   of   virtue   appears   steep  is   proper   that   he    endeavors    to 

and  craggy,  be  not  discourugeu.  succeed."  

{I  ■)  Ot,"  may  terminate." 


SYNTAX.  175 

6.  Oil  tlie  form  of  the  auxiliaries  in  the  compound  tenses  of  tlie  suhjunctiva 
mood,  it  seems  proper  to  make  a  few  observations.  Some  writers  express 
themselves  in  the  perfect  tense  as  follows  :  "  If  thou  ham  determined,  we  must 
submit :"  "  Unless  he  Jiave  consented,  the  writing  will  be  void  :"  but  we  be- 
lieve that  few  authors  of  critical  sagacity  write  in  this  maimer.  The  proper 
form  seems  to  be,  "  If  thou  hast  determined,"  "  Unless  he  has  consented," 
&c.,  conformaUy  to  what  we  g-encrally  meet  with  in  the  Bible  :  "  1  buve  sur- 
iiamed  thee,  though  thou  hast  not  known  me."  Isaiah  xlv.  4,  5.  "  Wliat  is 
the  hope  of  tlie  hypocrite,  though  he  haCh  gained,"  &.c.  job  xxvii.  8.  See 
also  Acts  .\xviii.  4. 

"  If  thou  have  determined,  we  must  submit."  How  should  this  sentence  be 
altered  ? 

5. 
"  If  thou  have  promised,  be  faithful  to  submission,  he  is  too  generous  to 

thy  engagement."  exact  it." 

"Though  he  have  proved  his  right  to     "  Unless  he  have  improved,  he  is  un- 
fit for  the  office." 

6.  In  the  pluperfect  and  future  tenses,  we  sometimes  meet  with  such  ex- 
pressions as  these ;  "  If  thou  had  applied  thyself  diligently,  thou  wouldst  have 
reaped  the  advantage  ;"  "  Unless  thou  shall  speak  the  whole  truth,  we  caii- 
not  determine  ;"  "  If  thou  icill  undertake  the  business,  there  is  little  doubt  of 
success."  This  mode  of  expressing  the  auxiliaries  does  not  appear  to  be 
warranted  by  the  general  practice  ot  correct  writers.  They  should  be,  hadst, 
shall  and  wUt :  and  we  find  them  used  in  this  form,  hi  the  sacred  Scriptures  : 
"  If  thou  hadst  known,"  &c.  Luke  xix.  47.  "  If  thou  hadst  been  here,"  &c. 
John  xi.  21.  "  If  thou  loill,  thou  canst  make  me  clean."  Matt.  viii.  2.  See, 
also,  2  Sam.  ii.  27 ;  Rlatt.  xvii.  4. 

"  If  thou  wilt  undertake  the  business,  there  is  little  doubt  of  success."  Is  this 
mede  of  expression  warranted  by  good  authority  ?    How  shFOuld  it  be  altered  ? 

6. 

"  If  thou  Jmd  succeeded,  perhaps  thou  of  the  measure,  we  shall  not  de- 

wouldst   not  be  the   happier   fur  sire  thy  support." 

it,"  "  Though  Uiou  will  not  acknowledge, 

"  Unless  thou  shall  see  the  propriety  thou  canst  not  deny  the  fact." 

7.  The  second  person  singular  of  the  imperfect  tense  in  the  subjunctive 
mood,  is  also  very  frequently  varied  in  its  termination ;  as,  "  If  thou  loved  him 
truly,  thou  wouldst  obey  him  ;"  "  Though  thou  did  conform,  thou  hast  gained 
nolhhig  by  it."  This  variation,  however,  appears  to  be  improjmr.  Our  pres- 
ent version  of  the  Scriptures,  which  we  again  refer  to  as  a  good  grammatical 
authority  in  points  of  this  nature,  decides  against  it ;  "  If  thou  knewest  the 
gift*"  &c.  John  iv.  10.  "  If  thou  didst  receive  it,  why  dost  thou  glory  ?"  &c. 
1  Cor.  iv.  7.  See  also  Dan.  v.  22.  But  it  is  proper  to  remark,  that  the  form 
of  the  verb  to  be,  when  used  subjunclively  in  the  imperfect  tense,  is  indee(\ 
very  considerably  and  properly  varied  from  that  which  it  has  in  Hie  imperfect 
of  the  indicative'moodj  as  the  learner  will  perceive  by  turning  to  the  con- 
jugation of  that  verb. 

Is  the  second  person  singular  of  the  imperfect  ever  varied  in  its  termination 
in  the  subjiuictive  mood  ?  Will  you  give  an  example  ?  Is  this  variation 
proper  ? 

'■' If  thou  ^'aiie  liberally,  thou  v.'ilt  re-     "  Was  he  ever  so  great  and  opulent, 

ceive'a  liberal  reward."  this  conduct  would  debase  him." 

"  Though  thou  did  injure  him,  he  har-     "  Was  I  to  enumerate  all  her  virtues, 

bors  no  resentment."  it  would  look  like  flattery." 

"  It  would  be  well,  if  the  report  was     "  Though  I  was  perfect,  yet  would  I 

only  the  misrepresentation  of  her  not  presume." 

enemies." 

8.  It  may  not  be  superfluous  also  to  observe,  that  the  auxiliaries  of  the  po- 
tential moorl,  when  applied  to  the  subjunctive,  do  not  change  the  termination 
o7the  second  person  singular.  We  properly  say,  "  If  thou  viayst  or  canst  go  ;" 
"  Though  thou  mighist  live ;"  "  Unless  thou  couldst  read  ;"  •''  If  thou  wouldst 


176  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

learn  ;"— and  not  "  If  thou  may  or  can  g'o,".&c.  It  is  suflficicnt,  on  this  point, 
to  adduce  the  authorities  of  Johnson  and  l^owth  : — •'  If  ihou  shouldst  go  ;" 
Johiuon.  "  If  thou  mazjst,  viightst,  or  couldsl  love  ;"  loivtli.  Some  aulliors 
think  that,  when  that  expresses  the  motive  or  end,  the  termination  of  these 
auxiliaries  should  be  varied  ;  as,  "  1  advise  thee,  that  thou  may  beware  ;" 
"  He  checked  thee,  timt  thou  should  not  presume ;''  but  there  does  not  appear 
to  be  any  ground  tor  this  exception.  If  the  expression  of  ■'  condition,  doubt, 
contingency,"  &,c.  does  not  warrant  a  change  in  the  form  of  these  auxiliaries, 
why  should  they  have  it,  when  a  motive  or  end  is  expressed  !  The  transla- 
tors of  the  Scriptures  do  not  appear  to  have  made  the  distinction  contended 
for.  "  Thou  bulkiest  the  wall,  that  thou  mayst  be  their  king."  Neh.  vi.  6. 
"  There  is  forgiveness  with  thee,  that  thou  ntayst  be  feared."  Ps.  cx.\x.  4. 

From  tiie  preceding  ol)servations  under  this  rule,  it  a|jpcars.  that,  with  re- 
spect to  what  is  termed  the  present  tense  of  any  verb,  when  the  circumstances 
of  contingency  and  futurity  concur,  it  is  proper  to  vary  the  terminations  o) 
the  second  and  third  persons  singular;  that  without  the  cinuurrence  of  those 
circumstances,  the  terminations  should  not  be  altered  ;  and  that  the  verb  anel 
the  auxiliaries  of  the  tliree  past  lenses,  and  the  aitxiliaries  of  the  lirst  future,  un- 
dergo no  alterations  whatever,  except  the  imperfect  oi  (he  verb  to  he.,  which,  in 
cases  denoting  contingency,  is  varied  in  full  the  persons  of  the  singular  number. 
After  perusnigwhal  has  been  advanced  on  this  subject,  it  will  be  natural  for 
the  student  to  inquire.  What  is  tlie  extent  of  the  subjunctive  mood  ?  Seme 
grammarians  think  it  extends  only  to  what  is  calletl  the  present  tense  of  veil;s 
generally,  under  the  circumstances  of  contingency  and  futurity,  ai:d  to  the 
imperfect  tense  of  the  verb  to  be,  when  it  denotes  contingenrv,  &c. ;  because 
in  these  tenses  only,  the  form  of  the  \'erb  admits  of  variation  ;  and  they  suppose 
that  it  is  variation  merelj'  which  constitutes  the  distiliction  ol  moods.  It  is  the 
opinion  of  other  grammarians,  (in  which  opinion  we  concur,)  that,  besides  the 
two  cases  just  mentioned,  all  verbs  in  the  three  past  and  the  t^^o  future  tenses 
are  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  when  they  denote  contingency  or  uncertainty, 
though  they  have  not  any  change  of  termination ;  and  that,  when  ccntingcncy 
is  not  signified,  the  verb,  through  all  these  five  tenses,  belongs  to  the  indicative 
mood,  whatever  conjunction  ma}'  attend  it.  The}'  think  that  ilie  definition 
and  nature  of  the  subjunctive  mood  have  no  reference  to  change  of  termina- 
tion, but  that  they  refer  merely  to  tiie  manner  of  the  being,  action,  or  passion 
signified  by  the  verb  ;  and  that  the  sulijunctive  mood  may  as  proper!}'  exist 
without  a  variation  of  the  verb,  as  the  infinitive  mood,  which  has  no  termina- 
tions diflierent  from  those  of  the  indicative.  'J'he  decision  of  this  point  may 
not,  by  some  grammarians,  be  thought  of  much  consef|uence.  Rut  the  rules 
which  ascertain  the  jiropnety  of  varving  or  not  varying  the  terminations 
of  the  verb,  will  certainly  be  deemed  important,  Tlicse  rules  mnv  be  well 
observed,  without  a  uniformity  of  sentiment  respecting  the  nature  and  limits  of 
the  subjunctive  mood,* 

Do  the  auxiliaries  of  the  potential  mood,  when  applied  to  the  subjunctive, 
change  the'lermination  of  the  second  person  singular  ?  When  is  it  proper  to 
var}'  the  terminations  of  the  second  and  third  persons  singular  of  the  present 
tense?  Do  the  verb  and  auxiliaries  of  the  past  tenses,  and  the  auxiliaries  of 
the  first  future,  undergo  any  alteration  ?  What  exception  ?  What  is  tlie 
opinion  of  some  grammarians  in  reganl  to  the  extent  of  the  sulijunctive  mood  ? 
What  is  the  opinion  of  other  grammarians  ?  In  which  of  these  opinions  does 
the  author  concur? 

8. 
"  If  thou  may  share  in  his  labors,  be     "  Unless  thou  can  fairh'  support  the 
thankful,  and  do  it  cheerfully."  cause,  give  it  up  honorably." 

*Wehave  stared,  forth?  stiidcnl's  infnrnjatipn,  the  ciiffirei.l  opini.iMsof  griminariaiis,  .■p'pcc'ing  Ihe  Eiijlisll 
subjunctive  mood  ;  First,  that  which  supposes  there  is  no  such  mood  in  our  laniuaKe  :  f.cccrtdhi,  that  which 
extends  it  no  farther  than  the  tariaiiniis  of  the  verb  extend;  Thirdly.  \h».i  which  we  have  "adopted,  and 
explained  at  large,  and  which,  in  S'^iieral,  corresp-jnds  with  tlie  views  of  the  most  approved  writers  on  English 
grammar.  We  may  add  a  Fimrth  opinion,  which  appears  to  possess,  at  least,  much  plausibility.  This 
opinion  admits  the  arrangement  we  have  given,  with  r^ne  variation,  namely,  that  of  assigning  to  'the  first 
tense  of  the  subjunctive,  two  forms— 1st,  that  which  simply  denotes  continjrcncy ;  a*,  "  If  he  desires  il,  I  will 
perform  the  operation  ;"  that  is,  if  lie  now  desires  it:  Sdiv,  that  which  denotes  hnth  conlin::ency  and  futiirily  ;  aa, 
«  If  he  desire  it,  I  will  perform  the  operation  ;"  that  is,  "  If  he  should  hereafter  desire' it."  This  last  theory 
of  the  subjunctive  mood  claims  the  merit  of  rendeiiug  the  whole  sv-stein  isf  the  moods  consistent  and  regular-, 
of  being  more  conformable  than  any  other  to  the  definition  of  the  subjunctive,  and  of  not  referring  to  the 
[ndicative  mood  forms  of  expression,  whicli  il)  accord  with  i^3  simplicity  aod  nature.  Perhapi  this  theocy 
iviil  bear  a  Btrict  examiQatloo. 


SYNTAX.  ITS' 

"  Thougli  thou  iiii^ht  have    foreseen  "  Unless  lliou  sliould  make  a  timely 

tlie  daiiijcr,  lliou  couldst  not  have  retreai,  the  danger  will  be  una 

avoided  it."  voidable." 

''  If   thou    could    convince    him,   he  "  I  have  labored  and  wearied  m^'self, 

would  not  act  accordingly."  that  thou  may  be  at  case." 

''If  thou  would   ihi])rovc  in  knowl-  "  lie  enlari^^ed  on  those  dangers,  that 

etigc,  be  diligent."  thou  .should  avoid  them." 

9.  Some  conjunctions  have  correspondent  conjunctions  belonging  to  them, 
cither  e.vpressed  or  understood  ;  as, 

1st.   Though — yet,  nevertheless:  as,"  Though  ho  was  rich,  yet  tor  our  sakoa  h« 
bccamo  poor ;"  "  Though  powertui,  lie  was  meek." 

2(f.     Whether — or  ;  as,  "  IVhethnr  he  will  go  or  not,  I  cannot  tell." 

3(1.     Either — or  ;   as,  "  I  will  either  send  it,  or  bring  it  myself." 

4th.  Jfeither — nor  ;  Bs,  "  JVeither  he  nor  I  am  able  to  compass  it.' 

5th.  As — as  ;  expressing  a  comparison  of  equality  ;  as,  "  She  is  as  amiable  as  h*x 
Bister;  and  as  much  ros|)octe<l."  ' 

6th    -Si — so ;  expressing  a  comparison  of  equality  ;  as,  "  As  the  stars,  so  shall  \\i 
seed  bo." 

7th.  As— so  ;  expressing  a  comparison  of  quality  ;  aa,  "  As  the  one  dieth,  so  dietii 
the  other;"  '■^  As  he  reads,  thoy  read." 

8th.  So — as  ;  with  a  verb  expressing  a  comparison  of  quality  ;  as,  "  To  see  thy 
glory,  so  us  I  have  seen  thee  in  the  sanctuary." 

9th.  So — as;  with  a  negative  and  an  adjective  expressing  a  comparison  of  quanti- 
ty ;  as,  "  Pompey  was  not  so  great  a  general  as  Caisar,  nor  so  great  a  man." 

10th.  So — that;   expressing  a  consequence;   as,  "  lie    was  so   fatigued,  that  ha 
could  scarcely  move." 

The  conjmictions  or  and  7wr  may  often  be  used,  with  nearly  equal  propri 
ety.     "  The  king,  whose  character  was  not  sufficiently  vigorous  yior  decisive, 
assented  to  the  measure."     In  this  sentence,  or  would,  perhaps,  have  been 
better ;  but,  in  general,  nor  seems  to  repeat  the  negation  in  the  former  part  of 
the  sentence,  and,  therefore,  gives  more  emphasis  to  the  expression. 

Are  there  any  conjunctions  which  have  correspondent  conjunctions  belong  • 
ing  to  them  1     Give  examples. 

9. 

"  Neither  the  cold  or  the  fervid,  but  "  The  dog  in  the  manger  would  not 

characters   uniformly  warm,  are  eat  the  hay  himself,  nor  suffer  the 

formed  for  friendship."  ox  to  eat  it." 

"  They   are  both  praiseworthy,   and  "  As  far  as  I  am  able  to  judge,  the 

one   is  equally  (I.)  deserving  as  book  is  well  written." 

the  other."  "  We   should   faithfully   perform   the 

"  He  is  not  as  diligent  and  learned  as  trust  committed  to  us,  or  ingen- 

his  brother."  uously  relinquish  the  charge." 

"  I  will  present  it  to  him  myself,   or  "  He  is  not  as  eminent,  and  as  muck 

direct  it  to  be  given  to  him."  esteemed,  as  he  thinks  himself  to 

"  Neither  despise  or  oppose  what  thou  be." 

dost  not  understand."  "  The  work   is   a  dull  performance, 

"  The  house  is  not  as  commodious  as  and  is  neither  capable  of  pleasing 

we  expected  it  would  be."  (3.)  the  understanding,  or  the  im- 

"  I  must,  however,  be  so  candid  to  agination." 

own  I  have  been  mistaken."  "  There  is  no  condition  so  secure,  as 

"  There  was  something  so  amiable,  cannot  admit  of  change." 

and  yet  so  piercing  m  his  look,  as  "  This  is  an  event  which  nobody  pre- 

(2.)  affected  me  at  once  with  love  sumes  upon,  or  is  so  sanguine  to 

and  terror."  hope  for." 

-"  I  gained  a  son  ;  "  We  are  generally  pleased  with  any 


And  such  a  son  as  all  men  hailed  me  little  accomplishments  of  body  or 

happy."  mind." 

10.  Conjunctions  are  often  improperly  used,  both  singly  and  in  pa'rs.  The 
following  are  examples  of  this  impropriety  :  "  The  relations  are  so  uncertain, 
as  that  they  require  a  great  deal  of  examination  ;"  "  It  should  be,  "  that  they 
require,"  &c.     "  There  was  no   man  so  sanguine,  v>h<S  did  not  apprehend 

(1.)  For  "  tqually,"  read  "  0»."  (2.)  "  Vtat  it.»  (3.)  "  neither  the. " 


178  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

some  ill  consequences  ;  it  ought  to  be,  "  so  sanguine  as  net  to  apprehwid," 
&c. ;  or,  "  no  man,  how  saiiOTiiie  soever,  who  did  not,"  &c.  "  To  trust  in  him 
is  no  more  l.ut  to  acknowledge  ins  power."  "  Tills  is  no  other  but  the  gale  of 
paradise."  In  both  ol  lliese  instances,  but  should  be  titan.  "  We  should  suffi- 
ciently' weigh  the  objects  of  our  hope  ;  wliether  they  are  such  as  we  maj 
reasonal)lv  exp»-ct  from  them  what  they  propose,"  &c.  It  ought  to  be,  "  &at 
we  mav  reasonably."  &c.  "  The  duke  had  not  behaved  with  that  loyalty  as 
he  ought  to  have  "done  ;"  "  unth  which  he  ought."  "  In  the  order  as  they  lie 
in  his  preface  ;"  it  should  be,  "  in  order  as  they  lie ;"  or,  "  in  the  order  in 
which  they  lie."  "  Such  siiarp  replies  that  cost  him  his  life  ;"  "  as  cost,"  &c. 
"  If  he  were  truly  that  scarecrow,  as  he  iy  now  commonly  painted;"  "such  a 
scarecrow,"  &c.  "  I  wish  I  could  do  that  justice  to  his  memory,  to  oblige  the 
painters,"  &,c. ;  "  do  such  justice  as  to  oblige,"  &.c. 

Will  you  repeat  this  Note,  and  give  an  example  under  it  ?  What  is  said 
of  sentences  beginning  with  ttie  conjunctive  form  of  the  verb  ?  Give  an  exam- 
ple.    Whew  has  as  the  force  of  a  relative  pronoun  ?  (1.)     Give  an  example. 

There  is  a  peculiar  neatness  in  a  senlence  beginning  with  the  conjunctive  form 
of  a  verb.     "  Were  there  no  drfferenco,  tliere  would  be  no  choice." 

A  ilouhle  conjunctive,  in  two  corres[ion<lent  clauses  of  a  sentence,  is  gomctimes 
made  use  of;  as,  "//«(/  he  done  this,  he  Aad  escaped  ;"  "Had  the  limitations  on 
the  prerogative  been,  in  his  time,  quite  fixed  and  certain,  his  integrity  Aarf  made 
him  regard  a.^  sacred  the  boundaries  of  the  constitution."  The  sentence  in  the 
common  form  would  have  read  thus  :  "  If  the  limitations  on  the  prerogative  had 
been,"  &c.  "  bin  iiitPijrity  would  have  made  him  regard,"  &.C. 

The  jiarticl-^  (in,  when  it  is  connected  with  liie  pronoun  nuch,  has  the  forcu  of  a 
relative  pronoun  ;  as,"  Let  iuck  as  presume  to  advise  others,  look  well  to  their  own 
conduct ;"  which  is  equivalent  to,  "  Let  them  who  presume,"  &c.  But  when  used 
by  itself,  this  particle  is  to  be  considered  as  a  conjunction,  or  perhaps  as  an  adverb. 
Our  lansjuage  wants  a  conjunction  adapted  to  a  familiar  style,  equivalent  to  Jiofc- 
viith.it anding.  The  words  fur  all  that  seem  to  lie  too  low.  "  Tbe  word  wag  in  tha 
nioulb  of  every  one,  but,  for  all  that,  the  subject  may  still  be  a  secret." 

In  regard  that  is  solemn  and  antiquated  ;  because  would  do  much  better  in  the  fol- 
;owing°sentence  :  "  Ft  cannot  be  otherwise,  in  regard  that  the  French  prosody  differi 
from  that  of  every  other  language." 

The  word  except  is  far  pret'erablo  to  other  than.  "  It  admitted  of  no  effectual  cure 
other  than  amputation."  Eieept  is  also  to  be  preferred  lo  all  but.  "They  were 
happy,  all  but  the  stranger."  In  the  two  following  phrases,  the  conjunction  <is  is 
improperly  omitted:  "  Which  nobody  prcsumns,  or  is  so  sanguine  ^  to  hope."  "  1 
must,   however,  be   so  just       to  own." 

The  conjunction  that  is  olten  piopcrly  omitted,  and  understood  ;  as,  "  I  beg  you 
would  come  to  me;"  "fee  thou  do  il  not;"  instead  of  "  that  you  would,"  "  that 
ihou  do."  r.ut  in  tlie  following,  and  many  similar  phrases,  tliis  conjunction  wero 
much  belter  inserted:  "Yet  it  is  reason  the  memory  of tlieir  virtues  remain  to  pos- 
terity."    It  should  be,  "  Vet  it  \»jast  that  the  memory,"  &c. 

10. 
"  Be  ready  to  succor  such  |)crsons  ir/;o     "He  gained   nothing  further   by  his 
(2.)  need  thy  assistance."  speech,  but  only  (6.)  to  be  com- 

"  The  matter  was  no  sooner  proposed,  mended  for  his  eloquence." 

hut  (.'5.)  he  privately  withdrew  lo     "  He   has  little   more   of  the  scholar 
consider  it."  besides  the  name." 

"  lie  has  too  much  sense  and  prudence     "  He  has  ilule  of  tlie  scholar  than  tlie 
than  lo   become   a  du[)e  to  such  name." 

artifices.''  ''  They    had    no    sooner   risen,    btit 

"  It  is  not  sufficient  that  our  conduct.  they  applied  themselves  to  their 

0.S  far  as  it  respects  others,  ai)pears  studies." 

lo  be  unexceptionable."  "  From  no  other  institution,  besides 

*  The  resolullon  was  not  the  less  fixed,  the  admirable  one  of  juries,  could 

thill  (4.)   the  secret  was  yet  com-  so  great  a  benefit  be  exjiected." 

nninicatc<l  to  very  lew."'  "  Those    savage    people    seemed    to 

'He  opposed   the    most   remarkable  have  n<i  other  element  but  war." 

corruptions  of  Uie  church  ofRome.     "Such    men    that   act    treacherously 
so  (.5.)  OS  that  his  doctrines  were  ought  to  be  avoided." 

embraced  by  great  numbers." 


(I.)  656.        B2.)"a»."        (3.)  •' (Aon,"        (i.)  "  tluiush."       ^.)  "  and  on  thu  acaAmt."       (6.)"«K^.' 


SYNTAX.  179 

"  Qennany  ran  the  same  risk  as  Italy    "  No  errors  arc  so  trivial,  but  they(l.) 
had  done."  deserve  to  be  corrected." 

Corresponding  with  Hurray's  Grammnr, 
RULE  XX. 

IVhen  the  qualities  of  different  things  are  compared, 
the  latter  noun  or  pronoun  is  not  governed  by  the  con- 
junction than  or  as,  hut  agrees  with  the  verb,  or  is 
governed  by  the  verb  or  the  preposition^  expressed  or 
understood;  as,  "Thou  art  wiser  tlian  I;"  that  is, 
*'  than  I  am."  "  They  loved  him  more  than  me  ;" 
that  is,  "more  than  they  loved  me."  "The  senti- 
ment is  well  expressed  by  Plato,  but  much  better  by 
Solomon  than  him  ;"  that  is,  "  than  by  him." 

'■'  The  propriety  or  impropriety  of  many  phrases,  in  the  preceding  as  well 
as  in  sonic  other  Ibrnis,  may  he  discovered,  b}-  supplying  the  words  that  are 
not  expressed;  which  will  be  evident  from  the  following- instances  of  erroneous 
construction  :  "  He  can  read  better  than  me."'  "  He  is  as  good  as  her." 
"  Whether  I  be  present  or  no."  "  Who  did  this  ?  3Ie."  By  supplying  the 
words  understood,  in  each  of  these  phrases,  their  improi)riety  and  governing 
rule  will  appear  ;  as,  •'  better  than  I  can  read  ;"  "  as  good  as  she  is  ;"  "  pres- 
ent or  not  present ;"  ''  I  did  it." 

"  Thou  art  wiser  than  I."     Will  you  parse  /,  and  repeat  the  rule  for  it  ? 
"  In  some  respects,  we  have  had  as     "  They  know  how  to  write  as  well  as 
many  advantages  as  them  ;  but  in  him  ;  but  he  is  a  much  better  gram- 

the  article  of  a  good  library,  they  marian  than  them." 

have  had  a  greater  privilege  than     "  Though  she  is  not  so  learned  as  him^ 
us."  she  i§.  as  much  beloved  and  re- 

"  The  undertaking  was  much  better  spected." 

executed  by  his  brother  than  he."     "  These  people,  though  they  possess 
"  They  are  mucli  greater  gainers  tlian  more  shining  qualities,  are  not  so 

rrte  bv  this  unexpected  event."  proud  as  him,  nor  so  vain  as  her." 

1.  By  not  attending  to  this  rule,  many  errors  have  been  committed;  a 
number  of  which  is  subjoined,  as  a  fnr'.hor  cautiiin  niu!  direction  to  tlie  learner: 
"  Thou  art  a  much  greater  loser  than  me  by  lii^  dcalii."  ■'  .Siie  siilTers  hourly 
more  than  me."  "We  contributed  a  third  more;  than  the  Dutch,  who  were 
obliged  to  the  same  pro[)ortinn  more  than  us."'  "  King  Charles,  and,  more 
than  him,  the  duke  and  the  popish  faction,  were  at  libert}'  to  form  new 
schemes."  "  The  drift  of  all  ifis  sermons  was,  to  prepare  the  ,I(-ws  for  the 
reception  of  a  prophet  mightier  than  him,  and  whose  shoes  he  was  not  worthy 
to  bear."  "  It  was  not  the  work  of  so  ermnent  an  author  as  him  to  whom  it 
was  first  imputed."  "  A  stone  is  heavy,  ami  the  sand  weighty;  but  a  fool's 
wrath  is  heavier  than  them  both.'  "  li'  the  king  give  us  leave,  we  may  per- 
form the  office  as  well  as  them  that  do."  In  these  passages,  it  ought  to  be, 
■'  /.  Iff,  he,  they,"  respectively. 

When  the  relative  irho  immediately  follows  than,  it  .seems  to  form  an  ex- 
ception to  tl)e  "29111  Rule;  for,  in  that  connection,  the  relative  must  be  in  the 
objective  case  ;  as,  ''  Alfred,  than  irhoni  a  greater  king  never  reigned,"  &e. 
"  iJeelzelnib.  than  whom,  Satan  excepted,  none  higher  sat,"  &,c.  It  is  re- 
markable that,  in  such  instances,  if  the  personal  pronoun  were  used,  it  would 
be  in  tlie  nominative  case;  as,  "A  greater  king  never  reigned  than  he,"  thai 
is,  "  t'lan  he  i/a.s."  "  Beelzebub,  tha7t  he,"  &c.,  that  is,  "  thmi  he  sat."  The 
phrase  llian  whom  is,  however,  avoided  b}'  the  best  modern  writers. 

"  She  suffers  hourly  more  than  me."    Will  j'ou  correct  this  sentence,  and 

explain  why  it  is  wrong  1  .^ 

0-)  '*  tnat  iney  ao  nai,'^ 


m^  ENGLISH  QRAMMAR. 

1. 

"Who  betrayed  her    companion?"  "  Wliether  he  will  be  learned  or  no, 

"  Not  me."  must  depend  on  his  application." 

"  Who  revealed  the  secrets  he  oug^ht  "  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  than  who 

to  have  concealed  ?"  "  Not  hi/n."  (1.)   a  more   courageous   person 

"Who  related  falsehoods   to  screen  never  lived,  appears  to  have  been 

herself,   and  "to  bring   an  odium  destitute  of  the  tender  sensibili- 

upon  others?"  "Not  me;  it  was  ties  of  nature." 

hei:"  "Salmeisius  (a  more  learned  man  than 

"  There  is  but  one  in  fault,  and  that  him  has  seldom  appeared)  was  not 

is  me."  happy  at  the  close  of  life." 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  XXI. 

To  avoid  disagreeable  repetitions,  and  to  express  our 
ideas  in  a  few  luords,  an  ellipsis,  or  omission  of  some 
words,  is  frequently  admitted.  Instead  of  saying, 
"  He  was  a  learned  man,  he  was  a  wise  man,  and 
he  was  a  good  man,"  ivc  malce  use  of  the  ellipsis,  and 
say,  "  He  was  a  learned,  wise  and  good  man." 

When  the  omission  of  words  would  obscure  the  sentence, 
wealien  its  force,  or  be  attended  with  an  impropriety, 
they  must  be  expressed.  In  the  sentence,  "  We  are 
apt  to  love  who  love  us,"  the  ivord  them  should  be 
supplied.  "  A  beautiful  field  and  trees,"  is  not 
proper  language ;  it  should  be  "  Beautiful  fields  and 
trees,"  or  "  A  beautiful  field  and  fine  trees." 

Almost  all  compounded  sentences  are  more  or  less  elliptical ;  some  exam- 
ples of  which  may  be  seen  under  the  different  parts  of  speech. 

"  I  dadly  shunned  who  gladly  fled  from  me."  Will  you  correct  this  sen- 
tence, and  repeat  the  latter  part  of  Rule  XXX,  by  which  the  correction  is 
made  ? 

"I  o-ladly  shunned  (2.)  who   gladly  fell  a  victim  to  the  madness  of  the 

led  from  me."  people,  truth,  virtue,  religion,  fell 

"And  this  is  (3.)  it  men  mean  by  dis-  with  him."  (5.) 

tributive  justice,  and  is  prsperly     "  The  fear  of  death,  nor  hope  of  life, 
termed  equity."  could  make  him  submit  to  a  dis- 

"  His  honor,  interest,   religion   were  honest  action  "  (6.) 

ail  embarked  in  this  undertaking."    "  An  elegant  house  and  furniture  were, 
/^  \  by  this  event,  irrecoverably  lost 

*'When  so  good  a  man  as  Socrates  to  the  owier."  (7.) 

1.  The  eUipsisof  the  article  is  thus  used;  "A  man,  woman,  and  child;" 
that  is.  '•  a  man,  a  woman,  and  a  child."  "  A  house  and  garden  ;"  that  is,  "  a 
hoivse'and  a  garden."  "The  sun  and  moon;"  that  is,  "the  sam  and  the 
moort"  *•  The  dav  and  hour ;"  that  is,  "  the  day  and  the  hour."  In  all  these 
instances,  the  article  being  once  expressed,  the  repetition  of  it  becomes 
unnecessary.  Tliere  is.  however,  an  exception  to  this  observation,  when  some 
peculiar  emphasis  requires  a  rcpetilion  ;  as  in  the  following  sentence  :  "  Not 
only  the  vear.  but  the  dav  and  the  hour."  In  this  case,  the  ellipsis  of  the  last 
article  woukl  be  improper.  When  a  different  form  of  the  article  is  requisite, 
the  article  is  ako  properly  repeated  ;  as,  "  a  house  and  an  orchard,"  instead 
of  "  a  liouse  and  orchard.  '  ^ 

(U  "  ui/ton.."-Notc  XX.  (648,)  («,>  "  toiwta)  (3.) '•  a<at  which.'  fl.)  Insert  "  WP 

nnoemore.         '6 1 "  and '"  livfce  K)  "iV'rfWo— n«r  "         p.V' ttow/I  awf!y." 


SYNT.VX.  181 

Will  you  give  an  example  of  the  ellipsis  of  the  article?  Is  it  necessary  lo 
repeat  llie  article  in  each  of  these  instances  ? 

1. 

"  These  rules  are  addressed  to  none  wiili  au  unimproved,  cr  with  a 

but  the  intelligent  and //le  (1.)  at-  corrupted,  mind." 

tentive."  '•'  The  more  I  see  of  his  conduct,  I  lik« 

"  The  nay  a^d  (he  pleasing  are,  some-  him  belter." 

times,  tiie  most  insidious,  and  the    "  It  is  not  only  the  duty,  but  interest, 
most  dangerous  companions."  of  young  persons  to  be  studious 

"  Old  age  will  prove  a  joyless  and  a  and  diligent." 

dreary  season,  if  we  arrive  at  it 

2.  The  noun  is  frequently  omitted  in  the  followin"'  manner  :  "  The  laws  of 
God  and  man;"  that  is,  "  The  laws  of  God  and  the  laws  of  man."  In  some 
very  empiiatical  expressions,  the  ellipsis  should  not  be  used  ;  as,  "  Christ,  the 
power  ■^f  God,  and  the  wisdom  of  God;"  which  is  more  emphatical  than 
"  Christ  the  power  and  wisdom  of  God." 

Will  you  give  an  example  of  the  omission  of  the  7ioun  ?  Should  this  ellipsis 
alwaj's  be  used  ? 

2. 
"  These  counsels  were  the  dictates  of  entertainment,  when  others  leave 

virtue,  and  the  dictates  (2.)  of  tme  us."  (4.) 

honor."  •  "  Without    firmness,  nothing  that   is 

'  Avarice  and  cunning  may  acquire  ereat  can  be  underlakea ;  that  is 

an  estate,  but  avarice  and  cunning  difficult  or  hazardous,  can  be  ac- 

cannot  gain  friends."  (3.)  complished."  (5.) 

"A  taste  for  useful  kn.owledge   will     "Theanxious  man  is  thevotary  of  rich- 
provide  for  us  a  great  and  noble  es;  the  negligent  of  pleasure. "(6.) 

3.  The  ellipsis  of  the  adjective  is  used  in  the  following  manner  :  "  A  de- 
lightful garden  and  orchard;"  that  is,  "  A  delightful  garden  and  a  delightful 
orchard."  "  A  liuic  man  and  woman ;"  that  is,  "  a  little  man  and  a  little 
woman."  In  such  elliptical  expressions  as  tbose,  the  adjective  ought  to  have 
exactly  the  same  signihcation,  and  to  be  quite  as  proper,  when  joined  to  the 
latter  substantive  as  to  the  former ;  otherwise  the  ellipsis  should  not  be  ad- 
mitted. 

Sometimes  the  ellipsis  is  improperly  applied  to  nouns  of  different  numbers , 

as,  "  A  magnificent  house  and  gardens."     In  this  case  it  is  better  to  use 

another  adjective  ;  as,  "  A  magmficent  house,  and  fine  gardens." 
Will  3'ou  give  an  example  of  the  ellipsis  of  the  adjective  ?     What  rule  in 

to  be  observed  in  the  use  of  this  ellipsis  ? 

.3. 

"  His   cranes   had  brought  him   into     "  That  species  of  commerce  will  pro- 
extreme  distress  and  extreme  per-  duce  great  gain  or  loss.  (10.) 
plexity."  (7.)                                       "Many  days,  and  even  weeks,  pass 

"  He  has  an  affectionate  brother,  and  away  unimproved."  (10.) 

an   affectionate   sister,  and   they    "  This  wonderful  action  struck  tlie  be- 
live  in  great  harmony."  (8.)  holders  with  exceeding  (II.)  as 

"  We  must  guard  against  too  great  se-  tonishment."  (10.) 

verity. and  facilityof manners. "(9.)     '' The  people  of  this  country  possess 

,'   We  should  often  recollect  v.-hat  the  a  healthy  climate  and  soil."  (9.) 

wisest  men  have  said  and  written     '•  They  enjoy  also  a  free  constitution 
concerning  human  happmess  and  and  laws."  (10.) 

vanity."  (10.) 

4.  The  following  is  the  ellipsis  of  the  pronoun :  "  I  love  and  fear  him  ;" 
that  is,  "  I  love  him,  and  I  fear  him."  "  My  house  and  lands  ;"  that  is,  "  My 
house,  and  my  lands."  In  these  instances,  the  ellipsis  may  take  place  with 
propriety  ;  but  if  we  would  be  more  express  and  emphatical,  it  must  not  be 
used  ;  as,  "  His  friends  and  his  foes  ;"  "  My  sons  and  my  daughters." 

In  some  of  the  ccmmon  forms  of  speech,  the  relative  pronoun  is  usuaJly 
omitted  ;  as, "  This  is  the  man  they  love,"  instead  of,  "  This  is  the  man  whom 

(l.>  Bejecl  "  (At."  (2.) '^  vrtue  and  of  Irm."  (3.)  Insert  "  (/iti/"  in  the  place  of  two  dooih. 

'4.)  li\£crt  •'  mttrtainments."        (5.)  In?erl  "  nothing.^'        (6.)  lD5ert  "  man,  that."       (7.)  Reject  an  adjee 
(iv-         '?.  BBJect  trro  worils.        (9.)  lasert  tvo  ivoris.        (10.)  lorert  an  adjective.       (H.)  "ex«««nf^,' 

15 


188  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

they  love;"   "  These  are  the  goods  they  bought,"  for  "  These  are  the  goods 

tvhich  they  bought." 

In  complex  sentences,  it  is  much  belter  to  have  the  relative  pronoun  ex- 
pressed ;  as  it  is  more  proper  to  say,  "  The  posture  in  which   1  lay,"  than 

'  Iji  the  posture  I  lay  ;  "  The  horse  on  which  I  rode,  fell  down,"  than  "  The 

horse  I  rode,  fell  down." 

The  antecedent  and  the  relative  connect  the  parts  of  a  sentence  together ; 

and,  to  prevent  obscurity  and  confusion,  they  should  answer  to  each  other 

with  great  exactness.     "  We  speak  that  we  do  know,  and  testify  that  we  have 

seen.       Here  the  ellipsis  is  manifest!}'  improper,  and   ought  to  be  supplied  ; 

as,  "  We  speak  that  which  we  do  know,  and  testify  that  which  we  have  seen." 
Will  you  give  an  example  of  the  ellipsis  of  the  pronoun  ?     Can  this  ellipsis 

be  properly  used  at  all  times  1 

4. 

"His  reputation  and  his  estate  were     "He  is  not  only  sensible  and  learned, 
both  lost  by  gaming."  (1.)  but  is  religious  too."  (2.) 

''  This  intelligence   not  only  excited     "  1"he  Chinese   language  contains  an 
our  hopes,  but  fears  too."  (2.)  immense  number  of  words;  and 

'  His  conduct  is  not  scandalous  ;  and  who  would   Icani  them  must  pos 

that  is  the  best  can  be  said  of  it."  sess  a  great  memory."  (2.) 

(3.)  "  By  presumption  and  by  vanity,  we 

"  This  was  the  person  whom  calumny  provoke    enmity,   and   we  incur 

had  greatlj'  abused,  cuid  sustained  contempt."  (1.) 

the    nijustice    with   singular   pa-     "  In  the  circumstances  I  was  at  that 
tience."  (2.)  time,  my  troubles  pressed  heavily 

•'He  discovered  some  qualities  in  the  upon  me."  (4  ) 

youth  of  a   disagreeable   nature,     "  He  had  destroyed  his  constitution, 
and   to   him   were   wholly  uiiac-  by  the  very  same  errors  that  so 

countable."  (2.)  many  have  been  destroyed." 

"  The  captain  had  several  men  died 
in  his  ship  of  the  scurvy."  (2.) 

6.  The  ellipsis  of  the  verb  is  used  in  the  following  instances  :  "  The  man 
was  old  emd  crafty  ;"  that  is,  "  The  man  was  old,  and  the  man  was  crafty." 
"  She  was  young,  and  beautiful,  and  good  ;"  that  is,  "  She  was  young,  she 
was  beautiful,  and  she  was  good."  "  Thou  art  poor,  and  wretched,  an^  mis- 
erable, and  blind,  and  naked."  If  we  would  fill  up  the  ellipsis  in  the  last 
sentence,  thou  art  ought  to  be  repeated  before  each  of  the  adjectives. 

If,  in  such  enumeration,  we  choose  to  point  out  one  property  above  the  rest, 
tliat  property  must  be  placed  last,  and  the  ellipsis  supplied ;  as,  "  She  is 
young  and  beautiful,  and  she  is  good." 

"  I  went  to  see  ami  hear  him,"  that  is,  "  I  went  to  see,  and  I  went  to  hear 
him."  In  this  instance,  there  is  not  on!}-  an  ellipsis  of  the  governing  verb,  / 
went,  but  likewise  of  the  sign  of  the  infinitive  mood,  which  is  governed  by  it. 
Do,  did,  have,  had,  shall,  wi/l,  may,  mishf.  and  the  rest  of  the  auxiliaries  of 
the  compound  tenses,  are  frequently  used  alone,  to  spare  the  repetition  of  the 
vprb  ;  as,  "  He  regards  his  word,  but  thou  dost  not ;"  that  is,  "  dost  not  regard 
it."  "We  succeeded,  but  they  did  not;"  "did  not  succeed."  "I  have 
learned  my  task,  but  thou  hast  not;"  "  hast  not  learned."  "  They  must,  and 
lliey  shall  be  punished  ;"  that  is,  "  they  must  be  punished." 

Will  you  give  an  example  of  the  ellipsis  of  the  verb  ?  Suppose  we  wish  to 
point  out  one  property  above  the  rest  ?  How  are  the  auxiliaries  sometimes 
used  ? 

5. 
"  He  is  temperate,  he  is  disinterested,     "  Perseverance   in  laudable   pursuits 
he  is  benevolent;  he  is  an  orna-  will  reward   all  our  toils,  smd  will 

ment  In  his  family,  and  a  credit  to  produce  efiects  be^'ond  our  calcu- 

his  profession."  (5.)  lation."  (7.) 

"  Genuine  virtue  supposes  our  benev-     "  It   is   happy   for  us,  when   we   ca» 
olence  to  be  strengthened,  and  to  calmly  and  deliberately  look  back 

be  confirmed  by  principle."  (G.)  on  the  past,  and  can  quietly  antioi- 

pate  the  future."  (7.) 

(to  Reject  a  pronoun.  (2.)  Insert  a  pronoun.  (3.)  *^  that — tlmty  t^.)  Insert  two  worth 

Hi.)  ueject  rix  wonK,  tai  insert  one.  (6.)  Bejeel  two  word*,  (7.)  Reject  one  woi4> 


SYNTAX.  1S3 

''The  sacrifices  of  virluc  \m11  not  only  oi'  \;riin-,  not  (uily  vvoiikl  they  es- 

be  rewarded  liercatlcr,  but  rocimi-  c;i|;o    i;iiiuni(;rai>ic    dangers,    but 

peiised  even  in  this  life.  (1.)  roainiaii.l  rcsijcct  fVdin  tlie  licen- 

"All   lliose   possessed   of  any  office,  tious  tlieniselvcs."  (2.) 

resigned     their    Ibnner    commis-     "  Cliarles    w  as   a   man   of   learning-, 
sion.  (2.)  knowledge,     and      lienevolence ; 

''  If  young  persons  were  determined  and,  what   is  still   more,  a   true 

to  conduct  themselves  by  the  rules  Christian."  (2.) 

6.  The  ellipsis  of  the  adcerb  is  used  in  the  following  maujier :  "  He  spoke 
and  acted  wisely;"  that  is,  "He  sr,)oko  wisely,  and  he  acted  wisely." 
"  Thrice  1  went  and  offered  my  service ;"  that  is,  ''  Thrice  I  went,  and  thrice 
I  offered  my  service." 

How  is  the  ellipsis  of  the  adverb  us/l1  ? 
6. 
"  The  temper  of  him  who  is  always  in     "  How  a  seed  grows  up  into  a  tree, 
the  bustle  of  the  world,  will    te  and  the  mind  acts  upon  the  body, 

often   nilHed,   and    be   often   dis-  are   mjsteries   which   we    cainiot 

turbed."  (3.)  explain."  (5.) 

"  VVe  often  commend  imprudently,  as     "Verily    there    is    a   reward    for   the 
well  as  censure  imprudently."  (4.)  righteous.     'J'here  is  a  God  tiiat 

judgeth  in  the  earth."  (5.) 

7.  Tlie  ellipsis  of  the  preposition,  as  well  as  of  the  verb,  is  seen  in  the  follow- 
ing instances  :  "  He  went  into  the  abbe^ys,  halls,  and  public  buildings  ;"  that 
IS,  "  He  went  into  the  abbeys,  he  went  into  the  halls,  and  he  went  into  the 
public  buikhngs."  "  He  also  went  through  all  the  streets  and  lanes  of  the 
city  ;"  that  is,  "  through  all  the  streets,  and  through  all  the  lane?,"  &c.  "  He 
spoke  to  every  man  and  woman  there  ;"  that  is,  "  to  ever}'  man  and  to  every 
woman."  "  This  da}',  next  month,  last  year;"  that  is,  "  On  this  day,  in  the 
next  month,  in  the  last  year."  "  The  Lord  do  that  which  seemeth  him  good  ;" 
that  is,  "  which  seemeth  to  him." 

Will  you  give  an  example  of  the  ellipsis  of  the  preposition  and  the  verb  ? 
7. 
"  Changes    are     almost     contiHually  gins  smilen  at  what  they  blushed 

taknig  place,  in  men  and  in  man-  before."  (;).) 

ners,  in  opinions  and  in  customs,     "  Tliey  are  now  reconciled   to  what 
in    private     fortunes    and    public  they     could      not     formerly     be 

conduct."  (5.)  (3.)  prompted,     by     any    considera- 

"  Averse  cither  to  contradict  or  bla-me,  lions."  (5.) 

the     too    complaisant    man    goes     "  Censure  is  the  tax  which  a  man  pays 

along  with  the  manners  that  pre-  the  public  for  being  eminent."  (5.) 

vail."  (5.)  "  Reflect  on  the  state  of  human  life, 

"  By  this  habitual  indelicacy,  the  vir-  and  the  society  of  men  as  mixed 

with  good  aiui  with  evil."  (3.) 

8.  Tlie  ellipsis  of  the  conjunction  is  as  follows  ;  "  They  confess  the  pt)wer, 
wisdom,  goodness,  and  love' of  their  Creator;"  that  is,  "the  power,  and  wis- 
dom and  goodness,  and  love  of,"  &:c.  ''  Though  I  love  him.  I  do  not  flatter 
him  ;  '  that  is,  "  Though  I  love  iiim,  yet  I    lo  not  flaller  him." 

Will  you  give  an  example  of  the  ellipsis  of  a  conjunction  .' 
8. 

"  In  all  stations  and  conditions,  the     "  Religious  persons  are  often  unjustly 
important  relations  take  place,  of  represented  as  persons  of  roman- 

masters    and    servants,   and    hus-  tic    character,    visionary   notions, 

bands  and  wives,  and  parents  and  unaciiuainted  with  the  world,  unfit 

children,  and  brothers  and  friends,  tc>  live  in  it."  (1.) 

and  citizens  and  subjects."  (G.)  "No  rank,  station,    dignity  of  birth, 

"  Destitute  of  principle,  he  regardc<l  possessions,    exempt    men     from 

neither  his  family,  nor  his  friends,  contributing  their  share  to  public 

nor  his  reputation."  (4.)  utility."  (7.) 

9.  The  ellipsis  of  the  interjection  is  not  very  common  :  it,  however,  is  some- 
fanes  used  ;  as,  "  Oh,  pity  and  shame  '."  that  is,  "  Oh,  pity!  oh,  shame  I" 

(1.)  Insert  three  wor'.sl  (2.)  Insert  two  »nr.l<.  (3.)  Reject  twii  wnnl?.  (4.)  RejL-ct  one  wonj, 

B.)  Insert  ooe  ivord.  (6.)  Reject  four  words.  (7.)  "  nor—no—iwr  any," 


184  ENGLISH  aRAMMAR. 

As  the  ellipsis  occurs  iii  almost  every  sentence  in  the  English  language, 
numerous  examples  of  it  might  be  given ;  but  only  a  few  more  can  be  ad- 
mitted here. 

In  the  following  instance,  there  is  a  very  considerable  one  :  "  He  will  oflen 
argue,  that  if  this  part  of  our  trade  were  well  cultivated,  we  should  gain  from 
one  nation;  and  if  another,  from  another;''  that  is,  "  lie  will  often  argiie, 
that  if  this  part  of  our  trade  were  well  cultivated,  we  should  gain  from  one 
ration  ;  and  if  another  part  of  our  trade  were  well  cultivated,  we  should  gain 
from  another  nation." 

The  following  iiisfiuiccs,  though  short,  contain  much  of  the  elhpsis  :  "  Wo 
is  me  ;"  i.  e.  "  wo  is  to  me."  "  To  let  blood ;"  i.  e.  "  to  let  out  blood."  "  To 
let  down  ;"  i.  e.  "  to  let  it  fall  or  slide  down."  "  To  walk  a  mile  ;"  i.  e.  "  to  walk 
through  the  space  of  a  mile."  "  To  sleep  all  night ;"  i.  e.  "  to  sleep  through 
all  the  night."  "  To  go  a  lishing  ;"  ''  To  go  a  hunting  ;"  i.  e.  "  to  go  on  a  fish- 
ing voyage  or  business ;"  "  to  go  on  a  hunting  party."  "  I  dine  at  two 
o'clock  5"  i.  e.  "  at  two  of  the  clock."  '■  By  sea,  by  land,  on  shore  ;"  i.  c. 
"  by  the  sea,  by  the  land,  on  the  shore." 

What  is  said  of  the  ellipsis  of  the  interjection  7 

9. 
"  Oh,  my  father  !  Oh,  my  friend  !  how     "  Oh,  piety  !  virtue  !    how  insensible 
great  has  been  my  ingratitude  !"  have  1  been  to  your  charms!"  (2.) 

10.  The  examples  that  follow  are  produced  to  show  the  impropriety  of  ellip- 
sis in  some  particular  cases.  "  The  land  was  always  possessed,  during  pleasure, 
b}'  those  intrusted  with  the  command  ;"  it  should  be,  ■'  those  persofts  intrusted  ;" 
or,  ••'  those  wlio  were  intrusted."  "  If  he  had  read  farther,  he  would  have  found 
several  of  his  objections  might  have  been  spared;"  that  is,  "he  would  have 
found  that  several  of  his  objections,"  &lc.  "  There  is  nothing  men  are  more 
deficient  in,  than  knowing  their  own  characters  ;"  it  ought  to  be,  "  nothing  *» 
v'hich  men,"  and,  •■'  than  in  knowing."  "  I  scarcely  know  any  part  of  natureil 
philosophy  would  yield  more  variety  and  use ;"  it  should  be,  ''  vhich  would 
yield,"  &'c.  •'  In  the  temper  of  mind  he  was  then  ;"  that  is,  •'  in  which  he  tiien 
was."  "  The  little  satisfaction  and  consistency  to  be  found  in  most  of  the  sys- 
tems of  divinity  I  have  met  with,  made  me  betake  myself  to  the  sole  reading  of 
the  Scriptures  ;"  it  ought  to  be,  "  which  are  to  be  found,"  and  which  I  have  met 
with."  "  He  desired  they  might  go  to  the  altar  together,  and  jointly  return 
their  thanks  to  whom  only  they  were  due  ;"  that  is,  '•  io  him  to  whom,"  &c. 

"  There  is  nothing  men  are  more  deficient  in,  than  in  knowing  their  own 
characters."     Will  you  correct  this  sentence? 

10. 
"  That  is  a  proj^erty  most  men  have,     "  Most,  if  not  all,  the  royal  family  had 

or  at  least  may  attain."  (3.)  quitted  the  place."  (2.) 

"  Why  do  ye  that  which  is  not  lawful     "  By  these  happy  labors,  they  who  sow 

to  do  on  the  sabbath  days  ?"  (2.)  and  reap,  will  rejoice  together." 

"  The  show  bread,  which  is  not  lawful  to  (4.) 

eat,  but  (or  the  priests  alone."  (2.) 

Corresponding  with  Murray's  Grammar, 
RULE  XXII. 

All  the  parts  of  a  sentence  should  correspond  to  each 
other  :  a  regular  and  dependent  construction,  through- 
out, should  he  carefully  preserved.  The  folloicing  sen- 
tence is,  therefore,  inaccurate :  "  He  was  more  be- 
loved, but  not  so  much  admired,  as  Cinthio."  It 
should  be,  "  He  wa.s  more  beloved  than  Cinthio,  but 
not  so  much  admired." 

(1.)  Bcjccl  ooe  '.vorJ.        (2.)  Insert  one  wortj,         (3.)  lasert  three  wards.        (■!.)  Insert  two  »'«rd«. 


SYNTAX.  185 

The  fimt  oxnmplo  iinilcr  lliis  rule  preaenta  a  most  irregular  construotion,  namely, 
•  He  \v:is  more  belov-fd  as  Cinlliio."  The  words  more  and  so  much  are  very  improp- 
erly staled  as  linviiig  the  same  rogiriicii.  In  correcting  such  sentences,  it  is  not 
necessary  to  supply  the  latter  ellipsis  ;  hecause  it  cannot  lead  to  any  discordant  or 
improper  const rut^ion,  and  the  supply  would  often  he  harsh  or  inelegant. 

As  the  31st  llule  conipreliends  all  the  preceding  rules,  it  may,  at  tlio  first  view, 
appear  to  he  too  general  to  he  useful.  But,  by  ranging  under  it  a  number  of  sen- 
tences peculiarly  constructed,  we  shall  perceive  that  it  is  calculated  to  ascertain  tho 
true  graminatii^al  construction  of  many  modes  of  expression,  which  none  of  the 
particular  rules  can  surticiently  explain. 

"  This  dedication  may  serve  for  almost  any  book,  that  has,  is,  or  shall  be  publish- 
ed ;"  it  ought  to  be,  "  that  has  been,  or  shall  be  published."  "  He  was  guided  by 
interests  always  difloront,  sometimes  contrary  to,  those  of  the  commuBity  ;  "dif- 
ferent /rum,"  or,  "always  different  from  those  of  the  community,  and  sometimes 
contrary  to  them."  "  Will  it  be  urged  that  these  books  are  as  old,  or  even 
oilier  than  tradition?"  the  words  "as  olil,"  and  "older,"  cannot  have  a  com- 
mon regimen  ;  it  should  be,  "  as  old  as  tradition,  or  oven  older."  "  It  requires  few 
talents  to  which  most  men  are  not  born,  or  at  least  may  not  acquire  ;"  "or  which, 
at  least,  they  may  not  acquire."  "  Tlie  court  of  chancery  frequently  mitigates  and 
breaks  the  teeth  of  the  common  law."  In  this  construction,  the  first  verb  is  said 
to  mitigate  the  teeth  of  the  common  law,"  which  is  an  evident  solecism.  "  Miti- 
g;ites  the  common  law,  and  breaks  tlie  teeth  of  it,"  would  have  been  grammatical. 

"  They  presently  grow  into  good  humor  and  good  language  towards  the  crown  ;" 
"grow  into  good  language,"  is  very  improper.  "There  is  never  wanting  a  set  of 
evil  instruments,  who,  either  out  of  mad  zeal,  private  hatred,  or  filthy  lucre,  are 
always  ready,"  &c.  Wo  say  properly,  "  A  man  acts  out  of  mad  zeal,"  or,  "  out  of 
private  hatred  ;"  but  we  cannot  say,  if  we  would  speak  English,  "  he  acts  out  of 
lillhy  lucre."  "  To  double  her  kindness  and  caresses  of  me  :"  tlie  word  kindness 
requires  to  be  followed  by  either  to  or  for,  and  cannot  be  construed  with  the  prep- 
osition o/.  "  iNever  was  man  so  teased,  or  suffered  half  the  uneasiness,  as  I  have 
done  this  evening  :"  the  first  and  third  clauses,  namely,  "  never  was  man  bo  teased," 
"  as  I  have  done  this  evening,"  cannot  be  joined  without  an  impropriety  ,  and  to  con- 
nect the  second  and  third,  the  word  that  must  be  substituted  for  as  ;  "  or  suffered 
half  the  uneasiness  that  [  have  done;"  or  else,  "  half  so  much  uneasiness  as  I 
have  suffered." 

The  first  part  of  the  following  sentence  abounds  with  adverbs,  and  those  such  as 
are  hardly  consistent  with  one  another:  "  How  mucksocver  the  reformation  of  this 
degeneraie  age  is  almost  uUerlij  to  be  despaired  of,  we  may  yet  have  a  more  com- 
fortable prospect  of  future  times."  The  sentence  would  be  more  correct  in  the 
fijllowing  form  :  "  Though  the  reformation  of  this  degenerate  age  is  nearly  to  be 
de-paired  of,"  iStc. 

"  Oh!  shut  not  up  my  soul  with  the  sinners,  nor  my  life  with  the  bloodthirsty; 
in  whose  hands  is  wickedness,  and  f/iC(>  right  hand  is  full  of  gifts."  Asthep»ssago 
introduced  by  the  copulative  conjunction  and,  was  not  intended  as  a  continuation 
of  the  principal  and  independent  part  of  the  sentence,  but  of  the  dependent  part, 
the  relative  ?rAo?6  should  have  been  used  instead  of  the  possessive  (Aeir  ;  namely, 
"  and  whose  right  hand  is  full  of  gifts." 

"  Eye  hath  not  seen,  nor  ear  heard,  neither  have  entered  into  the  heart  of  man, 
the  things  which  God  hath  prepared  for  them  that  love  him."  There  seems  to  be 
an  impropriety  in  thi<;  instance,  in  which  the  same  noun  serves  in  adouble  capacity, 
perforihing  at  the  same  time  the  offices  both  of  the  nominative  and  olijective  cases. 
"  NeitherAaf/t  it  entered  into  the  heart  of  man  to  conceive  tlie  things,"  &c.  would 
have  been  regular. 

"  Wo  have  the  power  of  retaining,  altering,  and  compounding  those  images 
which  we  have  once  received,  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision."  It  is 
very  proper  to  say,  "  altering  and  compounding  those  images  which  we  have  once 
received,  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision  ;"  but  we  cannot  with  propriety 
sav  "  retainins  them  into  all  the  varieties  ;"  and  yet,  according  to  the  manner  in 
w  hicli  the  words  are  ranged,  this  construction  is  unavoidable  :  for  retaining,  altering, 
an. I  comiioiinding  are  participles,  each  of  which  equally  refers  to  and  governs  tha 
subsequent  nouTi,  those  images  ;  and  that  noun,  again,  is  necessarily  connected  with 
the  following  preposition,  into.  The  construction  might  easily  have  been  rectified, 
l.y  disjoining  the  i)articiple  retaining  from  the  other  two  participles,  in  this  way  : 
"We  have  the  power  of  retaining  those  images  which  we  have  once  received,  and 
of  altering  and  compounding  them  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision  ;"  or, 
p.-rhaps,  better  thus  :  "  We  have  the  power  of  retaining,  altering,  and  conijjpunding 
those  images  which  wc  have  once  received,  and  of  forming  them  into  all  the  varie- 
ties of  picture  and  vision." 

Why  is  the  first  example  under  tlii.s  rule  inaccurate  ?  "  This  cledicatioH  mar 
serve  "for  almost  any  book,  llial  has,  is,  or  shall  be  publislieil."  Will  you 
poiiil  out  the  inaccuracies  in  this  sentence,  and  crarect  lliem  1 

^  16* 


186 


ENGUSH  GRAMAIAR. 


"Several   alterations    and    addftions 

have  been  made  to  the  work."  (1.) 
"The  first  proposal  was  essentially 
dMerent,  and  inferior  to  the  sec- 
ond." (2.) 
•^  He  is  more  bold  and  active,  but  not 
so  wise  and  studious  as  his  com- 
panion." (3.) 
"  Thou  hcai-esl  the  sound  of  the  wind, 
but  tliou  canst  not  tell  whence  it 
Cometh,  and  whitlier  it  goeth." 
"  Neither  has  he,  nor  any  other  per- 
sons, suspected  so  much  dissimu- 
lation." (4.) 
•'  The   court  of  France  or  England 
was  to  have  been  the  umpire."  (5.) 
"la  tiie  reign  of  Henry  H,  all  foreign 
commodities  were  plenty  in  Eiig'- 
land."  (6.) 
*•'  There  is  no  talent  so  useful  towards 
success  in  business,  or  which  puts 
men  more  out  of  the  reach  of  ac- 
cidents, than  that  quality  gener- 
cJly  possessed  by  persons  of  cool 
temper,  and  is,  in  common  lan- 
guage, called  discretion."  (7.) 
"The  first  project  was  to  shorten  dis- 
■    course,   by   cutting  polysyllables 
into  one."  (8.) 
"I  bhaill   do   all   I   can   to   persuade 
others  to  take  the  same  measures 
for  their  cure  which  I  have.  (9.) 
■  The    gientest    masters    of   critical 
learning    difier    among    owe    an- 
other." 
"  Micaiali  said,  If  thou  certainly  return 
ia  peace,  then  hath  not  the  Lord 
spoken  by  me."  (10.) 
■'  I  do  not  suppose,  tiiat  we  Britons 
want   a  genius,    more    than    the 
rest  of  our  neighbors."  (10.) 
'  'ilie    deaf   man   \vhose  ears  w  ere 
apened,  and  his  toiigxie  loosened, 
doubtless  glorified  tJie  great  Phy- 
sician." (11.) 


"  Groves,  fields,  and  meadows  are,  at 
any  season  of  the  year,  pleasant 
to  look  upon  ;  but  never  so  much 
as  in  tlie  opening  of  the  spring." 
(12.) 

"  The  multitude  rebuked  them,  because 
they  should  hold  their  peace." 

"  The  intentions  of  some  of  these  phi- 
losophers, nay,  of  many,  might 
and  probably  were  good."  (13.) 

"  It  was  an  unsuccessful  undertaking ; 
which,  allhouo-h  it  has  failed,  is  no 
objection  at  all  to  an  enterprise  so 
well  concerted."  (14.) 

"  The  reward  is  his  due,  and  it  has  al- 
ready, or  will  hereafter  be  given 
to  him."  (15.) 

'•'  Ey  intercourse  with  wsc  and  expe- 
rienced persons,  who  know  the 
world,  we  may  improve  and  rub 
off  the  rust  of  a  private  and  retir- 
ed education."  (16.) 

"  Sincerity  is  as  valuable,  and  even 
more  valuable,  than  knowledge." 

"  No  person  was  ever  so  perplexed,  or 
sustained  the  mortifications,  as  he 
has  done  to-day."  (18.) 

"  I'he  Romans  gave  not  only  the 
freedom  of  the  city,  but  capacity 
for  em.ployments,  to  several  towns 
in  Gaul,  Speiin,  and  Germany." 
(19.) 

"  Such  writers  have  no  other  standard 
on  which  to  form  themselves,  ex- 
cept what  chances  to  be  fashiona- 
ble and  popular."  (20.) 

"  Whatever  we  do  secretly,  shall  be 
displayed  and  heard  in  the  clear- 
est light."  (21.) 

"  To  the  hajipiness  of  possessing  a 
person  of  so  micoinmon  merit, 
Boeihius  soon  had  the  satisfaction 
of  obtaining  the  highest  honor  his 
country  could  bestow." 


(2.)  "  wuMmferier  to  the  stcmid,  and— from  it."         (3.  V  actiix 
(b.)"  or  am  of."  (G.)"plmtiful."  (7.)  Insert  " 


(1.)  "  r/ii*  wvrk  fias  received,"  kc. 
than  his."  {i .)  Inserl  "  have."  ,-  ,      ^    -         ,  ,..„,,  ,.  ..  ,  ,,„^„ 

imA"  which."  [S.)"t-y  reducing— to  iLWds  of  one  iyUaUe."  (9.)  Insert  a  participle.  (10.)  Re 

jecl  on"  word.  (11.)  Insert  two  words,  and  reject  one.  (12.)  Insert  "  so."  (13.)  Insert  have  been." 
( 14.)  "  the  failure  of  which  is,  hoiocvcr."  (IS.)  Insert  '■  leal." .  (16.)  End  with,  "  end  ml  offtls  nu(." 
(17.)  "oj  )inorvUdge,  and."  (18.)  Insert  "been"  for  "de)ic,"aiid  end  with  "  svch  morttficotton.' 

(19.)  "  i7ic  inhabitnnls  of."       (20.)  Reject  one  ivcrd.  (21.)  "  displayed  i 


1  the  cleai-est.' 


PROSODY. 


Prosody  consists  of  two  parts  :  the  former  teaches  the  true  pro- 
nunciation of  words,  comprising  accent,  quantity,  emphasis, 
PAUSE,  and  tone  ;  the  latter,  the  laws  of  versification. 


OF    PRONUNCIATION. 

OF    ACCENT. 

Accent  is  the  laying  of  a  peculiar  stress  of  the  voice  on  a  certain  letter  or 
syllable  in  a  word,  that  it  may  be  better  heard  than  the  rest,  or  distinguished 
from  them ;  as,  in  the  word  presume,  the  stress  of  the  voice  must  be  on  the 
letter  u,  and  second  syllable  sume,  which  take  the  accent. 

OF    QUANTITY. 

The  quantity  of  a  syllable  is  that  time  which  is  occupied  in  pronouncing 
it.     It  is  considered  long  or  short. 

A  vowel  or  syllable  is  long,  when  the  accent  is  on  the  vowel,  which  occa- 
sions it  to  bo  slowly  joined  in  pronunciation  with  the  following  letter;  as, fall, 
tale,  mood,  house,  feature. 

A  syllable  is  short,  when  the  accent  is  on  the  consonant,  which  occasions 
the  vowel  to  be  rjuickly  joined  to  the  succeeding-  letter ;  as,  ant,  bonnet,  hiaigSr. 

A  long  syllable  generally  requires  double  the  time  of  a  short  one  ui  pro.- 
nonncing  it";  thus  mute  and  note  should  be  pronounced  as  slowly  again  as 
mat  and  not. 

OF    EMPM.\S1S. 

By  EMPHASIS  is  meaiit  a  stronger  and  fuller  sound  of  voice,  by  which  we 
distinguish  some  word  or  words  on  which  we  design  to  lay  a  particular  stress, 
and  to  sliow  how  they  affect  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  Soinetijnes  the  emphatic 
words  must  be  distinguished  by  a  particular  tone  of  voice,  as  well  as  by  a 
greater  stress. 

OF    PAUSES. 

Pauses  or  rests,  in  speaking  and  reading,  are  a  total  cessation  of  tlia 
voice,  during  a  perceptible,  and,  in  many  cases,  a  measurable  space  of  time. 

OF    TONES. 
Tones  are  different  both  from  emphasis  and  pauses,  consisting  in  the  modu- 
lation of  the  voice,  the  notes  or  variations  which  we  einploy  in  the  expression 
of  our  sentiment?*. 


OF    VERSIFICATION. 

Versieication  is  the  arrangement  of  a  certain  number  aaid  variety  of 
syllables,  according  to  certain  laws. 

Rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  tlie  last  sotmd  of  one  verse  to  die  last 
sound  of  another.  ^^ 

%Vhat  's  tirosG^v  ?  How  mucb  mora  I'up.e  does  the  proBUBciatioD  ti  a 

What  is  acceat  ?   What  i>  the  quantify  of  a  syl-  lou?  sjUaHe  occupy,  thia  a Bljort  cos ?    What  UffB- 

latol«=    When  fc  a  vowel  or  sylUWe  loBj!  ?     When  phasls  ?    What  ar?  causes  ?  What  »i«  tcsies  ?    What 

ttoft )  Give  examples  of  each.  i»  Tersificitioa  1    What  is  rbv-ree  ? 


188  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

OF  POETICAL  FEET. 

A  certain  number  of  syllables  coiiiiecied  form  a  foot.  They  are  called _/f«< 
because  it  is  by  their  aid  that  the  voice,  as  it  were,  steps  along'  through  the 
verse  in  a  measured  pace. 

Ail  feet  used  in  poetrj'  consist  either  of  two,  or  of  three  S3llable«,  and  are 
reducible  to  eight  kinds — four  of  two  syllables,  and  four  of  three — as  follows  i 

niSSYLLABLK.  TRISYLLABLE. 

A  Trochee, ' — v^  A  Dactyl.  —  ^>  v^ 

An  Iambus.  v_/  —  An  Amphibrach,  \^  —  ^^ 

A  Spondee, An  Anspipst,  v.^  v^  — 

A  Pyrrhic  ^^  ^-^  A  Tribrach,  \_/  v^  ^^ 

A  Trochee  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  last  unaccentf^d ;  as, 
"  HateOiJ,  pettish." 

An  Iambus  has  the  first  syllable  unaccented,  and  the  latter  accented;  as, 
"  Hctray,  consist." 

A  Spondee  ha^  both  the  words  or  syllables  accented ;  as,  "  Tlie  pale 
moini." 

A  Pyrrhic  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  unaccented  ;  as,  "  (m  the  tall 
trf;c." 

A  l>actyl  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  two  latter  unaccented  ;  as, 
"  Laborer,  possible." 

An  Amphibrach  has  the  first  and  last  syllables  unaccented,  and  the  middle 
one  accented  ;  as,  "  Dplightlul,  domestic." 

An  yVnaprest  has  the  two  first  syllables  unaccented,  and  tlie  last  accented; 
as,  •'  Contravene,  acquiesce." 

A  Tribrach  has  all  its  syllables  unaccented  ;  as,  "  NuinerSblp,  conquerable." 

Some  of  those  may  be  denominated  principal  feet,  as  pieces  of  poetry  may 
be  wholly  or  chiefly  formed  of  any  of  them.  Such  are  the  Iambus,  Trochee, 
Dactyl,  and  Anajjcest.  The  others  may  be  termed  .sfcondary  feet,  because 
their  chief  use  is  to  diversify  the  numbers,  and  to  improve  the  verse. 


PUNCTUATION. 

PuNGTUATiON  IS  the  art  of  dividing  a  written  composition  into  sen- 
tences, by  points  or  stops,  for  the  purpose  of  marking  the  different 
pauses  which  the  sense  and  an  accurate  pronunciation  require. 

The  Comma  represents  the  shortest  pause;  the  Semicolon,  a  pause  double 
that  of  the  comma  ;  the  Colon,  double  that  of  the  semicolon;  and  the  Period, 
double  that  of  the  colon.  

OF  THE  COMMA. 

The  Comma  usually  separates  those  pans  of  a  sentence  which,  though  very 
closely  connected  in  sense  and  construction,  require  a  pause  between  them. 

nuLF.  1. — With  respect  to  a  simple  sentence,  the  several  words  of  which  it 
is  composed,  have  so  near  a  relation  to  each  other,  that,  in  general,  no  points 
arc  requisite,  except  a  full  stop  at  the  end  of  it ;  as,  "  The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the 
beginning-  of  wisdom."  "  Every  part  of  nature  swarms  with  living  creatures." 

A  simple  sentence,  however,  when  it  is  a  long  one,  and  the  nominative  case 
is  accompanied  with  inse))arable  adjuncts,  may  admit  of  a  pause  immediately 
before  the  verb  ;  as,  "  The  good  taste  of  the  present  age,  has  not  allowed  us 
to  neglect  the  cultivation  of  the  English  language."  "  To  be  totally  indif- 
ferent to  praise  or  censure,  is  a  real  clefect  in  character." 

Whit  constitutes  a  poetical   font,  aud  whv  is  it  so  What   is    puncli.ition  ?    What    doet    the  cniniiMi 

called?    Of  how  many  syllables  do  poetical  feet  ton-  represent?    the  semicolon  ?    the  colon  ?    the  peri»d  > 

»ist  ?    How  ni3ny  kinds  of  feet  are   there,  and  what  How  is  ttie  comma  used  ? 

arelhey?     What  is  a  Trochee  ?  an  Iinibus?    a  Spon-  "  The  fear  of  th«  Lord  is  the  befpnninR  of  wisdom," 

we?    a  Pyrrhic?     a  Dactvl  ?    an  Amphibrach  ?    an  Does  this  len'ente  require  a   pause  i»  it  ?     Will  you 

/.napKst?     a  Tribrach?     Will  vou  Rive  an  example  give  Ihe  rule  for  sentences  ef  this  kind  ?     "  The  good 

•f  each  ?     Which  are  called  prmciyal  fttt  ?     Which  la<te  of  the  present  a|?e  has  not  allowed  us  to  neglect 

Hondary  f    Whjr  ?  the  eultivatiou  of  Ihe  EpgUsh  language. "    Dgcaliiii 


I'ROHODY.  180 

Rule  2.— Whon  tlis  counectiou  of  ihe  JiflcrciU  parts  of  a  simple  ataianca, 
}S  interrupted  b}'  an  imperfect  phrase,  a  comma  is  usually  introduced  before 
tlio  beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  phrase  ;  as,  "  I  remember,  with  gratitude, 
his  goodness  to  me."  "  Ilis  work  is,  in  nitiny  respects,  very  imperfect  "  "  It 
is,  mere/ore,  not  mucli  approved."  But  \\hen  tlie  interruptions  are  slia^hl  aiid 
ujiimportant,  the  comma  is  better  omitted;  as,  "Flattery  is  certainly  per- 
nicious."    "  There  is  surely  a  pleasure  iu  beneficence." 

Hulk  3. — When  two  or  more  nouns  occur  in  the  same  construction,  they 
are  parted  by  a  comma ;  as,  "  'J'he  husband,  wife,  and  chiklren,  suffered  ex- 
tremcl}'."     "  They  took  away  their  furniture,  clothes,  and  .stock  in  trade." 

From  this  rule  there  is  mostly  an  exception,  with  regard  to  two  nouns  closely 
connected  by  a  conjunction ;  as,  "  Virtue  and  vice  form  a  strong  contrsist  to 
each  other."  "  Libertines  call  religion  bigotry  or  superstition."  If  the  parts 
connected  are  not  short,  a  comma  may  be  inserted,  though  the  conjunction  is 
expressed  ;  as, "  Romances  may  be  said  to  be  miserable  rnapsodics,  or  damger- 
ous  incentives  to  evil." 

Rule  4. — Two  or  more  adjectives,  belonging  to  the  same  substantive,  are 
likewise  separated  by  commas  ;  as,  "  Plain,  honest  truth  wants  no  artificial 
covering."    "  David  was  a  bravo,  wise,  and  pious  man." 

But  two  adjectives  immediately  connected  oy  a  conjunction,  are  not  sepa- 
rated by  a  comma ;  as,  "  Truth  is  fair  and  artless."  '•'  We  must  be  wise  or 
foolish  :  there  is  no  medium." 

Rule  6. — Two  or  more  verbs,  having  the  same  nominative  case,  and  im- 
mediately following  one  another,  are  also  separated  by  commas  ;  as,  "  Virtue 
supports  in  adversity,  moderates  in  prosperity."  "  In  a  letter  we  may  advise, 
exnort,  comfort,  request,  and  discuss." 

Two  verbs  immeaiately  connected  by  a  conjunction,  are  an  exception  to  ths 
rule  ;  as,  "  The  study  of  natural  history  expands  and  elevates  the  mind."        ^ 

Two  or  more  participles  are  subject  to  a  similar  rule  and  exception. 

Rule  G.-^Two  or  more  adverbs  immediately  succeeding  each  other,  must 
be  separated  by  commas  ;  as, "  We  are  fearfully,  wonderfully  framed."  "  Wo 
must  act  prudently,  steadily,  and  vigorously." 

When  two  adverbs  are  joined  by  a  conjunction,  they  are  not  parted  hy  a 
comma ;  as,  "  Some  men  sin  delilierately  and  presumptuously." 

Rule  7. — When  participles  are  followed  by  something  that  depends  upon 
them,  they  are  generally  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas  ; 
as,  "  The  king,  approving  the  plan,  put  it  in  execution."  "  His  ia.\eiUs,  formed 
for  great  enterprises,  comd  not  fail  of  rendering  him  conspicuous." 

Rule  8.— When  a  conjunction  is  parted  by  a  phrase  or  sentence  from  the 
verb  to  which  it  belongs,  such  intervening  phrase  has  usually  a  comma  at  each 
extremity' ;  as,  "  They  set  out  early,  and,  before  the  dawn  of  day,  arrived  at 
the  destined  place." 

Rule  9. — Expressions  in  a  direct  address  are  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence  by  commas  ;  as,  "  My  son,  give  me  thy  heart."  "  I  am  obliged 
to  you,  my  friends,  for  your  many  favors." 

Rule  10. — The  case  absolute,  and  the  infinitive  mood  absolute,  are  sepa- 
rated by  commas  from  the  body  of  the  sentence  ;  as,  "  His  father  dying,  he 
succeeded  to  the  estate."  "  At  length,  their  ministry  performed,  and  race  well 
run.  they  left  the  world  in  peace."  "  To  confess  the  ti-uth,  I  was  much  in 
fault." 

Rule  11.— Nouns  in  apposition,  that  is,  nouns  added  to  other  nouns  in  the 
same  case,  by  way  of  explication  or  illustration,  when  accompanied  with  ad- 
juncts, arc  set  off  by  commas ;  as,  "  Paul,  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  was 

sentence  admit  of  a  pause  ?  If  so,  where,  and  what  is  stale  what  points  should  be  placed  in  this  seatence, 

the  rule  ?    "  I  remsmber  with  gratitude  his  goodness  and  the  rule  for  it  ?    State  the  exceptions, 

to  me."    Will  yo"  state  how  this  sentence  should  be  "  The  king  approving  the  plan,  put  it  in  execution." 

pointed,  and  the  rule  for  it  ?    Will  you  state  the  ei-  Will  you  state  how  this  sentence  should  be  pointed,  and 

tcption  to  this  rjle  ?                                                .  the  rule  for  it  ? 

"  Plain  honest  truth  wants  no  artificial  covering."  "  They  set  nut  early  and  before  the  dawn  of  day  ar- 

Will  yoB  stale  how  this  sentence  should  be  pointed,  rived  at  Ihe  destined  place."    Will  you  state  the  rule 

and  the  rule  for  it?    What  exception  is  there  to  this  for  pointing  this  sentence,  and  others  of  a  similar 

rule?    "Virtue  supports  in  adversity,  moderates  in  kind? 

prosperity."    Will  you  slate  how  this  sentence  should  "  My  son  give  me  thy  heart."    What  is  Ihe  rale 

fc  pointed,  and  the  rule  for  it  ?    Slate  the  exceptions  for  pointing  this  sentence  ? 

to  this  rule.  "  Paul  the  apostle  of   the  Gentiles    was    eminent 

"  We  are  fearfully,  wonderfully  made."    Will  you  for  his  zsal  aod  knowledge."    Will  you  state  haw 


190  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

eminent  for  hi«  zeal  and  knowledge."    "  The  butterfly,  child  of  the  summer, 
flutters  iu  tlic  sun." 

But  if  such  nouns  are  sinHe,  or  on!}'  form  a  proper  name,  they  are  not  di- 
vided ;  as,  "  Paul  tlie  aposlTe."  "  Tlie  emperor  Autoninas  wrote  an  excellent 
book." 

Rui.E  12. — Simple  members  of  sentences,  connected  by  comparatives,  are 
for  the  most  part  distinguished  by  a  comma  ;  as,  "  As  the  hart  panteth  after 
tlie  water-brooks,  so  doth  my  soul  pant  after  thee."  "  Bette?-  is  a  dinner  of 
herbs  with  love,  than  astall(;d  ox  and  hatred  willi  it." 

If  the  members  in  comparative  sentences  are  short,  the  comma  is,  in  gene- 
ral, better  omitted  ;  as,  "  How  much  hetler  is  it  to  got  wisdom  thaii  geklT" 

Rule  13. — When  words  are  placed  in  opposition  to  each  olbor,  or  with 
some  marked  variety,  they  require  to  be  distinguished  by  a  comma  5  as, 
"  Though  (lepi),  yet  clear ;  though  gentle,  yet  not  dull  ; 
Strong,  without  rage  ;  without  o'erflowiii^,  full." 

"Good  men,  in  this  frail,  imperfect  stale,  are  often  found  not  only  in  union 
with,  but  in  opposition  lo,  the  views  and  conduct  of  one  another." 

Sometimes,  when  llie  word  with  which  the  last  preposition  agree.'?,  is  single, 
it  is  better  to  omit  the  comma  before  it ;  as,  "  Many  states  were  in  alliance 
with,  and  under  the  protection  o/Romc." 

''  'J"he  same  rule  and  restriction  must  be  applied  when  two  or  more  nouns 
refer  to  the  same  preposition  ;  as,  "  He  was  composed  both  under  the  threat- 
ening, and  at  the  approach,  0/  a  cruel  and  lingering  death." 

Rule  14. — A  remarkable  expression,  or  a  short  observation,  somewhat  in 
the  maimer  of  a  quotation,  may  be  properly  marked  with  a  comma;  as,  "  It 
hurts  a  man's  pride  to  say,  I  do  not  knovv."  "  Plutarch  calls  lying,  the  vice 
of  slaves." 

Rule  15. — Relative  pronouns  are  connectiv^e  words,  and  generally  admit 
a  comma  before  them ;  as,  "  He  preaches  sublimel_v,  who'  lives  a  sober, 
righteous,  and  pious  life." 

But  w'len  two  members  or  phrases  are  closely  connected  by  a  relative,  re- 
straining the  general  notion  of  the  antecedent  to  a  particular  sense,  the  comma 
shoiild  be  omitted  ;  as,  "  Self-denial  is  the  sacrifice  which  virtue  must  make." 

The  fifteenlli  rule  applies  equal!}'  to  cases  in  which  the  relative  is  not  ex- 
pressed, but  understood ;  as,  "  It  was  from  piety,  warm  and  unaffected,  thai 
his  morals  derived  strength." 

Rule  16. — A  simple  member  of  a  sentence,  contained  within  another,  or 
following  another,  must  be  distinguished  by  a  comma  ;  as  •'  To  improve  time 
whilst  we  are  blessed  with  hettllb,  will  smooth  the  bed  of  sickness."  ''  Very 
often,  while  we  are  complaining  of  the  vanity  and  the  evils  of  human  life,  wc 
make  tliat  vanity,  and  we  increase  those  evifs." 

If,  however,  the  members  succeeding  each  other  are  very  closely  connected, 
the  comma  is  unnecessary;  as,  "  Revelation  tells  us  how  we  may  attain  hap- 
piness." 

When  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood  follows  its  governing  verb,  with  several 
words  between  them,  those  words  should  generally  have  a  comma  at  the  end 
of  them;  as,  "  It  ill  becomes  good  and  wise  men,  to  oppose  and  degrade  one 
another." 

Several  verbs  in  the  infinitive  mood,  having  a  common  dependence,  and 
su(  ceeding  one  another,  are  also  divided  by  commas  ;  as,  "  To  relieve  the  indi- 
gent, lo  comfort  the  afflicted,  to  protect  llie  innocent,  to  reward  the  deserving, 
are  humane  and  noble  employments." 

Rule  17. — When  the  \erb  to  be  is  followed  by  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood, 
which,  by  transposition,  might  be  made  the  nominative  cEise  to   it,  the  former 

this  scnlencc  should  be  pointed,  and  Ihe  rule  for  it  ?  rijhteous  jnd  pious  life."    Will  too  slate  how  th« 

"  As  Ihe  ban  lanlelh  after  Ihe   waier-bmoks  so  dn!h  sentence  should  be  pointed,  and  Ihe  rule  for  it  ?    Will 

my  soul  pant  after  thee."    Hniv  should  this  sentence  j-nu  s'ate  when  the  cnmnia  should  be  omitted  ?    Docs 

be  pointed,  and  what  is  the  rule  for  it?  this  rule  apply  to  cases  in  which  Ihe  relative  ■  ex. 

"  Thoujh  deep  yet  clear  though  penile  yet  not  dull."  pressed  ?    Give  an  example. 

How  should  this  sentence  be  pnintel,  and  what  is  Ihe  "To    improve  time  whilst   we  are  blessed   with 

rule  for  il?    State  the  exception  to  this  rule.     "It  health  will  smooth  the  bed  of  sickness."    How  should 

hurts  a  mau's  pride  to  say  I  do  not  know."     How-  this  sentence  be  pointo<l,  and  what  is  the  ruk  for  it  ? 

rtiould  this  •>entence  be  poin'eJ,  and  what  is  the  rule  Will  you  slate  the  ejceplioos  to  Ibit  rule  / 
for  il  ?    "  He  preaches  sublimely  who  lives  a  sober 


PROSODY.  191 

Is  generally  sRparated  Iroiu  ilie  laiter  verb  ]>y  a  pomma;  as,  "The  most  ob 
vious  remedy  is,  to  vviilidraw  from  all  associatii)iis  wild  bad  men."  "  Tlis 
first  and  most  obvious  remedy  asjaiiist  tlie  intcction,  is,  to  withdraw  from  ail 
associations  willi  bad  men." 

RuLK  18. — When  atljuncls  or  oireumstances  are  of  importance,  and  often 
when  the  natural  order  of  ihem  is  inverted,  they  may  be  set  oil"  by  comm;i.s  ■ 
a.^,"  Virtue  must  be  formed  and  supported,  not  by  unfrequent  acts,  but  by 
daily  and  repeated  exertions."  "  Vices,  like  shadows,  towards  th«  evening 
of  life,  grow  great  and  monstrous.''' 

Rui-E  VJ. — Wliere  the  \erl)  is  understood,  a  comma  may  often  be  properly 
tntroduced.  This  is  a  g^encral  rule,  which,  besitles  comprising  some  of  tlio 
preceding  rules,  will  apply  to  many  eases  not  determined  by  any  of  them  5 
as,  "  From  law  arises  security  ;  from  security,  curiosity  ;  from  curiosity,  knowl- 
edge." 

Rui-E  20.— The  words  tutij,  so,  hence,  again,  first,  secondly,  formerly,  vow, 
lastly,  07ice  more,  aliove  all,  on  the  coiilran/,  in  the  next  place,  iinnort,  and  all 
other  words  and  phrases  of  the  same  kind,  must  generally  be  separated  from 
the  context  by  a  comma.  ^^___^ 

OF   THE   SEMICOLON. 

The  Semicolon  is  used  for  dividing  a  compound  sentence  mto  two  or  mors 
parts,  not  so  closely  connected  as  those  which  are  separated  by  a  comma,  nor 
yet  so  little  dependent  on  each  other  as  those  which  are  distinguished  by  a 
colon. 

The  semicolon  is  sometimes  used  when  the  preceding  member  of  the  sen- 
tence does  not  of  itself  give  a  complete  sense,  but  depends  on  the  following 
clause  ;  and  sometliues  when  the  sense  of  that  member  would  be  complete 
without  the  concluding  one  ;  as  in  the  following  instance  :  "  As  the  desire  of 
approbation,  when  it  works  according  to  reason,  improves  the  amiable  part  of 
our  species  in  every  thing  that  is  laudable  ;  so  nothing  is  more  destructive  to 
tlieni  when  it  is  governed  by  vanity  and  folly." 


OF  THE  COLON. 

The  Colon  is  used  to  divide  a  sentence  mto  two  or  more  parts,  less  connect- 
ed than  those  which  are  separated  by  a  ^emicolon  ;  but  not  so  independent  as 
separate,  distinct  sentences. 

The  colon  may  be  properly  applied  in  the  three  following  cases  ; — 

1.  When  a  member  of  a  sentence  is  complete  in  itself,  but  followed  by  some 
supplemental  remark,  or  further  illustration  of  the  subject,  as,  "  Nature  felt 
her  inability  to  extricnlo  herself  from  the  consequences  of  guilt  :  the  gospel 
reveals  die  plan  of  divine  interposition  and  aid." 

2.  When  several  semicolons  have  preceded,  and  a  still  greater  pause  is 
necessary,  in  order  10  mark  the  eoiuiecling  or  concluding  sentiment ;  as,  "  A 
divine  Legislator,  uttering  his  voice  from  heaven  ;  an  almighty  Governor, 
stretching  forth  his  arm  to  punish  or  reward  ;  informing  us  of  perpetual  rcsS 
prepared  hereafter  for  the  righteous,  and  of  indignation  and  wrath  awaiting' 
the  wicked  :  these  ar^;  the  considerations  which  overawe  the  world,  whica 
support  integrity,  and  check  guilt." 

.3.  The  colon  is  coininonly  used  when  an  example,  a  quotation,  or  a  spo€ej 
is  introduced  ;  as,  "  The  Scriptures  give  us  an  amiable  representation  of  th« 
Deity,  in  these  words  ;  '  God  is  love.'  " 


OF  THE  PERIOD. 

^Vllcn  a  sentence  m  complete  and  independent,  and  not  connected  in  ton- 
structiou  with  the  following  sentence,  it  is  marked  with  a  Period. 

"  The  most  obvious  remedy  is  to  withdraw  from  all  and  what  is  the  rule  frir  it  ?    "  He  fearei  want  hince 

aMoeiations  with  bad  meti."  '\Villyo\j  slate  how  this  he  overvalued  riches."     Will  you  slate   how  this  »en» 

Mntence    should    be    pointed,    and"  the   rule   for   h?  tence  should  be  pointed,  .ind  the  rule  for  it  ? 

**  Vices  like  shadows  towards  the  evenin*  of  life  grow  When    is  the  seniicolou  used  ?     VVben    is  fbe  o»- 

freat  and   monstrous."     Will  you  give  the  rule  for  Ion  used  ?      In  what  three   cases  may  tho  coIdii   be 

poiutin;;  this  sentence,  and    apply   it  ?     *'  From    law  properly  applied  ? 

arises  lecutity  from  securiJv  curiosity  from  curiosity  When  is  the  p<yiod  used  ?  After  abbreviatad  VTOrdl 

k&i>w1cdge."    [iow  tboulJ  tbW  seotcDce  be  p«uted,  what  point  should  be  used  ?    6ive  •xainplao. 


193  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

The  period  should  he  used  after  every  abbreviated  word ;  as,  M.  S.,  P.  S., 
N.  B.,  A.  D.,  O.  S.,  N.  S.,  &c.       

THE    DASH. 

The  Dash,  though  often  used  improperly  by  hasty  and  incoherent  writers, 
may  be  introducea  with  propriety  where  the  sentence  breaks  off  abruptly ; 
rt'here  a  significant  pause  is  required  ;  or  where  there  is  an  unexpected  turn  ill 
the  sentiment ;  as,  "  If  thou  art  he,  so  much  respected  once — but,  oh  !  how 
feUen  !  how  degraded  ."  

INTERROGATION. 
A  Note  of  Interrogation  is  used  at  the  end  of  an  interrogfalive  sentence  : 
tliat  is,  when  a  cjucstion  is  asked  5  as,  "  Who  will  accompany  me  ?"    "  Shall 
we  always  be  friends  ?"  ^^___ 

EXCLAMATION. 

The  Note  of  Exclamation  is  applied  to  expressions  of  sudden  emotion,  sur- 
prise, joy,  grief,  &c.,  and  also  to  invocations  or  addresses;  as,  "My  friend! 
lliis  conduct  amazes  me  !"  "  Bless  the  Lord,  O  my  soul !  and  forget  not  all 
his  benefits !" 

The  interrogation  and  exclamation  points  are  indeterminate  as  to  their 
quantity  or  time,  and  may  be  equivalent,  in  that  respect,  to  a  semicolon, 
H  colon,  or  a  j)eriod,  as  the  sense  may  require.  They  mark  an  elevation  of 
the  voice.  

PARENTHESIS. 
A  Parenthesis  is  a  clause  containing  some  necessary  information,  or  useftii 
remark,  introduced  into  the  body  of  a  sentence '.obliquely,  and  which  may  bo 
omitted  without  injiu-ing  llie  grammatical  constriiction  ;  as, 

"  Know,  then,  this  truth,  (enough  for  man  to  know,) 
Virtue,  alone,  is  happiness  below." 

The  parenthesis  marks  a  moderate  depression  of  the  voice,  and  may  be  ac- 
eompaiiied  with  every  point  which  the  sense  would  requu-e  if  the  parei''heticaL 
characters  were  omitted. 


Directions  respecting  the  Use  of  CAPITAL  LETTj 

It  is  proper  to  begin  with  a  capital, 

1 .  The  Arsi  word  of  every  book,  chapter,  letter,  note,  or  any  other  piece  ol 
wriliiig. 

2.  The  first  word  after  a  period,  and,  if  the  two  sentences  are  totally  inde- 
pendent, alter  a  note  of  interrogation  or  exclamation. 

3.  The  appellalions  of  the  T)eity ;  as,  God,  Jehovah,  the  Altnighty,  the 
Supreme  Being,  the  Lord,  Providence,  the  IMessiah,  the  lloly  Spirit. 

4.  Proper  names  of  persons,  places,  streets,  mountains,  rivers,  ships;    as, 
George.  York,  the  Strand,  the  Alps,  the  Thames,  the  Seahorse. 

5.  Aiijeotivcs    derived  from  the  proper   names  of  places;   as,  Grecian 
Roman,  English,  French,  Italian,  iScc. 

6.  Tlie  first  word  of  a  quotation,  introduced  after  a  colon,  or  when  it  is  in  a 
direct  fonn  ;  as,  "  Always  remember  this  ancient  maxim  :  '  Know  thyself.' " 

The  first  word  of  an  example  mav  also  \cry  prpperly  begin  with  a  capital. 

7.  Every  substantive  and  principal  word  in  the  titles  of  books  ;  as,  Johnson'o 
Dictionary  of  liie  English  Language;  Thomson's  Seasons. 

8.  The  first  word  of  every  line  in  poetry. 

9.  The  pronoun  1  and  the  inlerjcolion  O  are  written  in  capitals. 

Otlier  words,  besides  the  preceding,  may  begin  with  capitals,  when  they 
are  remarkably  einphatical,  or  the  principal  subject  of  the  composition. 

When  tmy  the  dash  be  introduced  with  propriety  ?  Uca  pointi  detcrsiiiute  u  to  their  qnuitilj  or  time? 

«  Who  \yiU  accompa.njr  me  I"    What  point  ihould  b«  Wh»t  ia  a  Direnthesis  ?    Givean  eiample  in  ntiich 

wed  »t  the  end  of  tbi<  lenteuce  ?  it  U  used  with  propriety.    Should  the  voiee  be  eleyat- 

To  what  it  Uie  BOti  «(  eiclimalioo  applied  ?    Oin  ed  orAepieMcd  in  proitannciiiga.par*£Ui:3ii; 

M  exanpltw     An  tko  (xelMiiatioB  nad  iakrtop  Wk(*fh«nl<i«afitallett«nt)«  iveil? 


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